The Physical Description

Physiography

Lesotho occupies an area of approximately 30,344 square kilometres of the Drakensburg escarpment on the eastern rim of the southern African plateau at elevations of 1,500 to 3,484 metres above sea level, between 28 to 31 degrees southern latitude and 27 to 30 degrees eastern longitude. The country is divided into four physiographic regions (Figure 1). The Lowlands form a narrow strip along the western boarder with South Africa at approximately 1,500 to 1,800m above sea level. Over 80 percent of the productive arable land and the highest population densities are found in this region. The Foothills range in elevation from 1,800 to 2,000 metres above sea level along the lower mountain range. This region covers approximately eight percent of the country and also supports high population densities. The Senqu River Valley (SRV) is a major grassland area marked by shallow soils. The Mountain region ranges from 2,000 to 3,400 metres above sea level. This area is primarily used for summer grazing and hosts some unique alpine and sub-alpine habitats of the Drakensburg range.

The climate of Lesotho is characterised by warm moist summers, from November to March; and cold dry winters from May to July. The climate can thus be categorised as semi-arid to sub-humid and continental. The southern lowlands and SRV are warmer and drier than the northern lowlands and mountains. Higher elevations above 3,000 metres above sea level receive enough snow during winter to cover the ground for several months with sub-freezing temperatures. However, the country exhibits marked seasonality with even the lowlands experiencing winter frosts. Such climatic conditions undoubtedly limit the scope of agriculture. Moreover, the topographical and/or climatic variations impose severe constraints on agriculture. Precipitation ranges from 450 mm in the south-western lowlands to 1,600 mm in the northern lowlands and eastern highlands. The mean annual temperature ranges from 5.7⁰C at the higher elevations to more than16⁰C in the southern lowlands.

Geology, Geomorphology, and Soils

Lesotho is underlain by sediments and basaltic lavas of the Karoo Supergroup. These basaltic lava flows attain a thickness of at least 1600 metres and characterise the mountain region. The basalt capped the underlying sediments during the tectonic evolution of the area in the early part of the Jurassic Period some 190 million years ago. The sediments of the Karoo Supergroup in this region comprise the Clarens Formation, Elliot Formation, Molteno Formation and Beaufort Group.

The broadest classification of the lands in Lesotho is the division between the lowlands and the mountains based upon geological structure, lithology and gross-topography. The lowlands are the regions, mainly in the west, where sedimentary strata outcrop below the scarp formed by the Clarens Formation. The mountains include the eastern part of the country, which lies above the Clarens scarp. The mountains are mainly formed in the basalts of the Lesotho Formation. A geomorphological unit is part of the land surface which is homogeneous in terms of morphology and genesis. In Lesotho this also implies a uniform underlying geology and within each geomorphological unit, a definite set of soils. Particular processes of accelerated erosion, mass wasting and sedimentation further characterise the geomorphology of Lesotho (Conservation Division, 1979).

Figure 1: Physiographic Regions of Lesotho.

Several scholars have related the geomorphological units of Lesotho and associated soils (West, 1972; Carrol et al., 1979; Schmitz, 1979, 1980, 1984). These initial correlations were also partly modified by Schmitz and Rooyani (1987). Table 1 shows the major geomorphological units and associated soils.

Table 1. Geomorphological Units and Associated Soil Series

Geology	Geomorphological Unit	Associated Soil Series
Lesotho Formation	Steep & middle slopes	Popa & Matšana
	Accumulation glacis	Fusi & Thabana
	Planation surface	Machache, Nkau, Sefikeng, Tumo, Matšaba, Seforong, Ralebese, Matela
	Alluvial deposits	Phechela, Khabo, Sofonia, Maseru dark
Clarens Formation	Structural plateau	Matela, Berea, Ntsi, Qalaheng, Thoteng, Theko
	High structural plateau	Lekhalong, Tšenola, Sani
Burgersdorp, Molteno& Eliot Formations	Accumulation glasis	Maliehe, Bosiu, Majara, Moshoeshoe, Tsiki, Sephula, Tšakholo, Maseru
	Planation surface	Leribe, Matela, Qalo, Hololo, Rama
	Alluvial deposits; high terrace	Matšaba, Seforong, Ralebese, Kubu, Khabo
	Alluvial deposits; middle terrace	Khabo, Kubu, Bela, Phechela, Maseru, Maseru dark
	Alluvial deposits; low terrace and flood plain	Caledon, Sofonia, Kolonyama, Phechela
	Dolerite dykes & sills	Ralebese

Source: Schmitz & Rooyani, 1987.

Water Resources

Lesotho’s water resources can be summarised by the general characteristics of precipitation, surface water/stream flow and ground water. These components form major components of the hydrological environment. Taking the water balance into account, the overall water output for Lesotho is 159.53 m³ per second (TAMS, 1996).

Topography influences the precipitation regimes in Lesotho. Rainfall increases with altitude from an average of 450 mm in the SRV to the lowlands along the south east and mountain foothills to more than 1,000 mm in the north eastern parts of the country (Sekoli, 1997). Eighty five percent of the annual precipitation falls between October and April and recedes in May, reaching a minimum during the months of June to August. However, during this period, snowfall is frequent in the highlands and occasionally in the lowlands. This spatial and temporal variability makes Lesotho a drought prone environment.

The country is drained by three major rivers, the Senqu River, Makhaleng River and Mohokare river systems. Runoff characteristics of these catchments reflect the physical character of the systems and affect flow regimes in the short and long term. Rainfall determines flow rates. High flows are normally observed during the rainy seasons and low flow rates in the dry season. Factors such as density and stream distributions, overland and channel slope, catchment storage, soils/geology and land use patterns affect and modify the flow regimes and hydrological output (Tšehlo, 1997).

The occurrence of groundwater is determined by aquifer characteristics in the different parts of the country. Aquifers vary spatially and temporally due to the nature and lithology of the different geological formations particularly local fracture, joint patterns, and topography (TAMS, 1996; Tšehlo, 1997).

Ecosystems and Species Diversity

Past Changes in the Condition of the Environment

Evidence from palynologic, geomorphologic and pedologic studies indicates that there has been Quaternary environmental changes in the Vaal and Orange catchments of the interior (26-28^oS) where colder periods with high rainfall alternated with warmer and drier periods (Van Zinderen Bakker and Butzer, 1973). These cycles were associated with changes in biotic communities. For example, drier periods encouraged xeric vegetation during the Holocene while wetter conditions promoted mesic grassland during the Upper Wurm Pleniglacial period. These ecological fluctuations are primarily attributed to natural climatic changes over an extended period of time.

Recent Environmental Changes

Vegetation

There is lack of empirical data to explicitly show the trend of vegetation changes in Lesotho. However, historical records indicate that major vegetation changes have taken place in Lesotho. Accounts of early travellers and evidence of surviving vegetation suggest that has been recent vegetation changes within different ecological zones of Lesotho. The lowlands of Lesotho supported a dense grassland with an open woodland and riverside willow thickets along major rivers. In addition, the scarp slopes and sheltered Kloofs and hollows in the hills supported dense woodlands with species such as Podocarpus latifolius, Cussonia spicate, Euclea ramosa, Ocotea bulleta and Aloe capensis (Germond 1967, Killick 1963, McVean 1977). Valley flats contained tussock grass marshes, reed and Cyperus beds which formed natural water spreading systems over the flood plains ( McVean, 1977). Many marshes, reed and Cyperus beds have disappeared, but places which once supported these wetlands are still referred to as mokhoabong (wetland) and mohlakeng (Reed bed). These vegetation types probably extended to some 2,000 metres above sea level to be succeeded by Montana scrub.

The sub-alpine scrub occurred within the sub-alpine belt at elevations above 2,000 metres above sea level. This vegetation type was dominated by Leucosidea sericea and Buddleia salviifolia, with patches of tall herb meadows in wetter areas and drier grassland on the ridges. The Buddleia-Leucosidea scrub was sometimes continuous with shorter Passerina, Cliffortia, Philippia and Athanasia scrub mainly on northern slopes, which are drier. This vegetation type has apparently been converted into a temperate grassland by fire (Jacot-Guillarmod, 1971; Weiland, 1982).

The alpine belt occurs above the sub-alpine scrub at 2,800 metres above sea level. There have not been any serious changes in vegetation within this zone. The alpine area contained numerous spring bogs, wet herb and sedge meadows. The grassland was dominated by Merxmuellera, Festuca, Pentaschistis and various heaths of Erica and Helichrysum. Heavy grazing by livestock, construction activities and mining have adversely impacted on the spring bogs.

Fauna

Animal diversity in Lesotho has changed due to factors such as habitat loss, direct slaughter and competition from large numbers of domestic stock on the available rangeland. Earlier accounts suggest that large game such as blesbok, zebra, wildebeest, eland and at least five species of antelopes were present in Lesotho (McVean, 1977; Lesenya, 1988). These reports are supported by the observation that many of these species which are extinct in Lesotho are still abundant in neighbouring parts of southern Africa. Another piece of evidence that supports the aforementioned accounts is derived from names of places such as Liphiring (hyenas) in Mohale's Hoek, clans such as Batloung (elephants) and commonly used names such as Tau (lion), which are given to people. All these names suggest that these animals were once present in Lesotho. At present a few species of large mammals remain in very small numbers in the country and these include mountain antelopes such as Grey reebuck (Pelea capreonus), Mountain reebuck (Redunca fulvorufula), Klipspringer (Oreatragus oreatragus) and baboons.

Furthermore, the information available on species of birds in Lesotho indicates that up to 16 species of birds that occurred in the country prior to 1940 could be extinct since there are no recent records of their presence (Osborne and Tigar, 1992). These absent species include species such as Ostrich (Struthio camelus) and African rail (Rallus caerulescens).

Current State of Biodiversity

Ecosystems and Habitats

The diversity of vegetation types is commonly used to express ecosystem diversity since vegetation has an impact on the abundance and distribution of animals. Lesotho is generally considered to be a grassland biome with a limited forest cover (Low and Robello, 1996). The grassland biome is subdivided into six grassland types. Table 2 presents the vegetation types of Lesotho and their corresponding area coverage. The grassland of Lesotho appears to be deteriorating at an alarming rate due to unsustainable range management practices. Presently, approximately 359,680 hectares of rangeland has been invaded by Karoo shrub, Chrysocoma ciliata. This degraded area consists of about 16 percent of the entire rangeland.

Table 2: Vegetation types, area covered and proportion of conserved areas

Vegetation Type	Synonyms	Area (km2)	Prop. Conserved (%)	Prop. of Country (%)
FOREST BIOME
Afromontane Forest	Montane Forest; Knysna Forest; North-eastern Mountain Sourveld; Highland & Dohne Sourveld	1	0	0
GRASSLAND BIOME
Highveld Grassland Types
Moist Cold Highveld Grassland	Cymbopogon-Themeda Veld Transition; Aristida unciformis-Eragrostis plana Grassland North-eastern Sandy Highveld; Highland Sweet Grassland; Moist Cool Temperate Grassland; Highland Sourveld to Cymbopogon-Themeda Veld Transition	6,689	0	22.63
Moist Cool Highveld Grassland	Cymbopogon-Themeda grassland; Themeda triandra-Eragrostis curvula grassland	198	0	0.67
Wet Cold Highveld Grassland	Rhus dentata-Leucosidea Thicket; High Cold Sourveld	58	3.28	0.2
Mountain Grassland Types
Afro Mountain Grassland	Themeda-Festuca Veld; Monocymbium ceresiiforme-Tristachyar á& leucothrix Grassland	15,489	0	52.4
Alti Mountain Grassland	Merxmuallera-Festuca grassland;Themeda-Festuca Alpine veld; Erica-Helichrysum Heath; Erica-Helichrysum-Eumorphia Sedge Heath	7,118	1.08	24.08
Moist Upland Grassland	Hyparrhenia hirta Tall grassland; Highland Sourveld; Dohne Sourveld	3	55.78	0.01
Total Area		29,558	0.27	100

Compiled from Lowe and Robelo, 1996

Environmentally Sensitive Areas

Wetlands

Mires (bogs and fens) are common in the highlands of Lesotho. These wetlands occur where precipitation exceeds potential evapo-transpiration, creating a net surplus of water. Mires are of Holocene period and consist of peaty-loam deposits and are commonly found in riverheads. They tend to purify and regulate the flow of water into streams. Mires are variable in size, ranging from several square metres to several square kilometres. The vegetation is predominantly made up of mat-forming miniature plants.

One conspicuous feature of bogs is the presence of hummocks. It appears that hummocks are a result of the process of succession where shallow pools are occluded by algae and bryophytes. This paves the way for invasion by higher plants leading to development of hummocks (Hughes and Hughes, 1992). High grazing pressure and trampling by livestock increasingly degrades many peat wetlands. Road construction in the mountain areas also contributes to wetland degradation.

Afro-alpine Ecosystem

The climate of the afro-alpine zone differs dramatically from that of other ecological zones and it is a key determinant of the unique alpine communities. The Maluti/Drakensberg alpine region contains unique habitats including bogs and fans. The region also has high levels of endemic plants. There is a total of approximately 1,375 species of plants (30 percent endemic), 250 species of birds, 50 species of mammals and 30 species of amphibians and reptiles.

The afro-alpine area in Lesotho is currently under heavy grazing pressure by domestic livestock. This is particularly evident in bogs, which are rapidly loosing their hydrologic function due overgrazing and trampling during summer months. Species Diversity and Conservation Status

Flora

Lesotho has approximately 2,000 species of flowering plants. Many interesting species occur within the Maloti-Drakensberg mountain range, which is considered to be a regional hot spot. These mountains cover 35,000 km² with 60 percent located in Lesotho. The number of plant species found within the Maloti-Drakensberg area is estimated at 1,750, of which 30 percent are endemic.

Most endemics occur in heathlands and bogs of the upper alpine belt (Hilliard and Burtt, 1990). Examples of endemic plant taxa in the region inter alia include: Aloe polyphylla (spiral aloe), Aponogeton ranunculiformis (water lily), Kniphofia hirsutas (red-hot poker), Dierama jucundum (Harebell) and Dianthus basuticus.

Fauna

Information on diversity of animals in Lesotho is sparse and, as a result, little is known about occurrence, abundance and distribution. Table 3 below gives some general information regarding animal diversity in Lesotho.

Table 3: Faunal Diversity in Lesotho

Group	Number of Species
Mammals	54
Birds	288
Snakes	16
Frogs and Toads	20
Fish	18
Swallowtail Butterflies	8
Total	404

Conservation Measures

Conservation of species is commonly done through establishment of protected areas in the wild (in situ) and through ex situ preservation which serve as a back-up to in situ conservation. Both forms of conservation are presently underdeveloped in Lesotho.

In Situ Conservation

Conservation of plants and animals is best done in the wild (in situ). Protected areas of different categories can play an important role in conserving Lesotho’s biodiversity. For example, some could be used for long-term ecological studies, while some may be important for sustainable development. At present about 0.7 percent of the total land area in Lesotho is under some form of protection. It is envisaged that the number of protected areas will increase in the near future. Table 4 gives the IUCN (1980) classification of existing and proposed protected areas in Lesotho with their respective management objectives.

Table 4: Protected Areas in Lesotho

 

IUCN Category	NAME	Management Objective
Category II	Sehlabathebe Wild Life Sanctuary and National Park Masitise Nature Reserve Proposed Tšehlanyane Nature Reserve	Managed Primarily for ecosystem protection and recreation
Category III	Thaba-Bosiu Mountain Proposed Liphofung Natural Monument NUL Botanical Garden Proposed Qoaling National Botanical Garden MOA Arboratum	Managed mainly for conservation of specific natural or cultural feature
Category IV	Proposed Management Area	Managed mainly for conservation through management intervention
Category V	Proposed ‘Muela Reserve	Managed mainly for land and seascape conservation and recreation
Category VI	Maboella Areas Sehlabathebe RMA Pelaneng/Bokong RMA Malibamatšo/Matsoku RMA Qhoali RMA Proposed Biosphere Reserve	Managed mainly for the sustainable use of natural ecosystems

Gazetted Areas

At present, only two areas, the Sehlabathebe Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park and the Masitise Nature Reserve are protected primarily for ecosystem protection and recreation. These two areas cover approximately 6,495 ha. In addition, three more areas totalling 4,012 ha are currently being developed into biodiversity conservation areas. Gazetted areas in Lesotho cover only 0.35 to 0.7 percent of the total land area.

Sustainable Use Areas

Sustainable use areas encompass those areas which managed primarily for the sustainable use of natural ecosystem, but which indirectly conserve biodiversity.

1) Maboella Areas

The maboella regime is a communal system that governs access to rangeland resources to ensure sustainable use of winter grazing areas, thatching grass, reeds and wood resources. This is an indigenous system, which was developed in the late eighteenth century by the Paramount Chief Moshoeshoe I and administered by local chiefs and headmen. This system is under stress to the point where it has collapsed in some areas due to declining traditional authority and an increase in population, whilst in others the scarcity of resources has actually strengthened the maboella regime.

2) Range Management Areas (RMAs)

The rangelands of Lesotho are primarily used for livestock grazing. Rangeland degradation has reached a critical level due to overgrazing and poor range management practices. Overgrazing has in turn led to progressive replacement of palatable grasses by invader species such as Chrysocoma ciliata. Annual soil loss from rangelands is estimated at 23.4 million tons per year. Frequent droughts also contribute to range degradation. Range Management Areas (RMAs)/Grazing Associations (GA) are specially designated management units designed to promote sustainable use of Lesotho’s rangelands.

This approach, which was initiated by the Ministry of Agriculture in 1978, is aimed at empowering, training, and advising communities to enable them to control and manage their grasslands. The associations have attracted more than 50 percent of livestock owners. To date, six areas with a total of 185,684 ha have been designated as RMAs. Also, the establishment of five additional RMAs is pending, and another additional one has been proposed. Furthermore, the suitability of an additional area of 5,000 ha, to be managed as an IUCN-Categorised "Sustainable Use Area", is to be investigated. Monitoring of the state and trends of the protected areas have been conducted in two RMAs and further monitoring exercises in other areas will be considered depending on the availability of resources.

3) Forest Reserves

In 1972, the Ministry of Agriculture launched the Lesotho Woodlot Project (LWP) which was to provide farmers with fuelwood and construction materials while at the same time conserving soil and water. The Forestry Division (FD) which was established in 1987 within the Ministry of Agriculture took over the activities of LWP. There are currently 487 existing forest reserves and government-owned plantations in the country.

Ex Situ Conservation

Ex situ conservation, which in Lesotho is the responsibility of the Government through the Ministry of Agriculture and the National Environment Secretariat (NES), is underdeveloped. In addition, some institutions, NGOs, and individuals are currently involved in ex situ conservation by propagating some plant species of economic importance.

Lesotho has one botanical garden managed by the National University of Lesotho (NUL) and one arboretum managed by the ministry of agriculture. The Lesotho Highlands Development Authority (LHDA) is developing a garden at Katse through cultivation of high altitude species, while NES has been allocated a site in Maseru for the establishment of the proposed National Botanical Garden. In addition, the Ministry of Agriculture in Lesotho has embarked on conservation of germplasm as a part of a regional strategy by the Southern African Development Community (SADC) for Conservation and Sustainable Use of Plant Genetic Resources.

Some small-scale ex situ conservation initiatives by individuals include propagation of the endangered endemic, Aloe polyphylla in Maseru and nurseries of medicinal plants in Maseru, Quthing and Leribe districts. Home gardens are also important. Many horticultural crop varieties are conserved by traditional farmers who depend entirely on recycled seed for home consumption.

Legislation

There is presently no comprehensive legislation for conservation of flora in Lesotho. Most conservation Laws in Lesotho focus on improvement of economic or agricultural benefits rather than direct conservation of flora and ecological processes. Only three pieces of legislation directly address biodiversity conservation and these are the Historical Monuments, Relics, Fauna and Flora Act of 1967, National Parks Act of 1975, and Managed Resource Areas Order of 1993. Nevertheless, an umbrella Environmental Bill that has specific provisions for conservation of biological diversity has been completed to provide the legal framework for new environmental institutions.

Monitoring

There is presently no national monitoring framework of biological diversity in Lesotho. The Lesotho Highlands Development Authority (LHDA) is however, engaged in flora and fauna monitoring programs within two of its areas, the Malibamatšo catchment (Phase 1A) and the Mohale catchment (Phase 1B).

Small-scale baseline studies for flora an initiative by the Range Management Division of the Ministry of Agriculture in Pelaneng/Bokong and Malibamatšo/Matsoku Range Management Areas (RMAs). In 1990/91, twelve permanent transects were established in Pelaneng/Bokong RMA and twenty in Malibamatšo/Matsoku RMA. Monitoring in these two RMAs is however not regular due to lack of resources. A similar baseline survey was carried out by Mokuku (1991) in Mafika-Lisiu alpine area where 30 permanent transects were established.

The regional monitoring program that includes Lesotho are the Southern African Birds Atlas Project (SABAP) which collects the distributional data of birds and the Southern African Frog Atlas Project which is preparing a checklist of frog species that occur in the region.

Demographics

Lesotho population is estimated at just over 2 million people with 51 percent constituting females. Current estimates put the annual population growth rate at 2.6 percent. However due to rural-to-urban migration urban population growth rate stands at 7 percent (UNDP, 1995). The Population and Manpower Division of the Ministry of Economic Planning provides the following demographic data (Ministry of Economic Planning, 1996). In 1995 the population living in rural areas was about 81 percent. The 1995 estimate of population doubling time was 29 years, however doubling time between 1970 and 1994 was 24 years (1970 population was just under a million as estimated by the Central Planning and Development Office, 1970). Forty-three percent of the population is below the age of 15, while 16 percent is under age 5. Average household size is 5.2 persons. Population densities have risen from 40 and 306 persons, respectively, for total and arable areas in 1976 to 68 and 760 persons in 1995.

Education

The Lesotho school system consists of a total of 12 years divided into 7 and 5 years, respectively, for primary and secondary education. As of March 1994, the number of schools stood at 1,232 with a primary school enrolment of 366,569 students (UNDP, 1998). The number of teachers was about 7,400, giving rise to an average student teacher ratio of 49 pupils per primary school teacher. Enrolment for boys constituted 47 percent, which is 2 percent less that the proportion of males in the national population. Again as of March 1994, 193 secondary schools served more than 61,000 students, taught by about 2,500 teachers. The district average student-teacher ratio stood at 24 to 1. Post-school education is provided by the single university and a number of technical, educational, and health schools offering diploma qualifications.

The UNDP (1997) reports a 1994 literacy rate of 60.9 percent for females and 80.3 for males. The combined primary and secondary enrolment rate for the same year stands at 60 percent for females and 51 percent for males.

Health

There are 19 hospitals within the country which are owned by Government, the Christian Health Association of Lesotho (CHAL), and private citizens. Of these, eight are owned by CHAL and one is in private hands. Despite their independence, CHAL hospitals still receive subsidies from the Ministry of Health. Total government grants to CHAL have amounted to some 7 percent of public health expenditure in the seven years up to 1996. Health indicators for 1994 show that there are about 18,000 people per doctor and 1,100 people per nurse. Doctor to nurse ratio stands at 1:8. Public expenditure on health has risen from 6.5 percent of total budget in fiscal year (FY) 1989/90 to 8 percent in FY94/95. This total expenditure, which amounts to 4.4 percent of GDP, is in line with sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) expenditure of 4 percent (Government of Lesotho, 1996). Per capita expenditure is equally representative of SSA and southern Africa.

Politics

Lesotho is a constitutional democratic kingdom ruled by a constitutional monarch. The legislative arm of government consists of two houses, the National Assembly, which is elected and the Senate, comprising 22 principal chiefs and 11 nominated members. The National Assembly elects a prime minister who them forms a government to run the country up to a period of five years.

Several political events have marked Lesotho’s political landscape since independence in 1966. Following the 1970 election, the Basotho National Party (BNP), incumbent party at the time, suspended the constitution and refused to hand over power to the Basotholand Congress Party (BCP) which is believed to have won that election. The BNP then ruled until 1986 when it was overthrown by the military. The army rule lasted until 1993 when a democratic election was held and a civilian government under the BCP installed.

Since the 1993 election several political events have destabilised the political and economic landscape. Early in 1994, the army mutinied, developing into two factions that fought a war. Later in August, the King suspended several constitutional clauses, expelled the democratically elected government, and installed his own government. The action was reversed through mediation by the Southern African Development Community (SADC). In 1997, the ruling party split into two parties with some members forming the Lesotho Congress for Democracy. This new party effectively assumed power until the 1998 election. In August 1998, opposition parties protesting that the election was fraudulent mounted protest actions, which finally led to the intervention by SADC-commissioned South African and Botswana military forces.

It is not clear whether lasting stability is now at hand. The important outcome for rural households is that more public funds are now to be spent in the reconstruction of towns destroyed during the intervention.

The land area and population figures suggest a population density of 66 people per square kilometre which in itself would not be a major problem if all the land was actually available for economic and residential purposes. Arable land is reported to have fallen from 13 percent of the total area at Independence (in 1966) to 9 percent due to residential encroachment and one of the most severe cases of soil erosion on the continent (Ministry of Economic Planning, 1989). At current population levels, there are 773 people per square kilometre of arable land, which has increased from 559 estimated for 1989 by Moyo, et al.. (1993). The remaining 91 percent of the land is accounted for by mountains, residential allocations, barren swathes of land, and foothill rangelands.

Lesotho's viable natural resource base is small (World Bank, 1995). Diamonds are mined and exported, however only 48,000 carats were exported in 1989 falling far short of the 15 million carats exported by Botswana (PC Globe, 1992). Since the closure of the Debeers large-scale operation in 1982, production has fallen into the hands of small-scale diggers’ co-operatives operating at Lemphane and Liqhobong. On average, production has averaged 11,000 carats per year valued at 7 million maloti (EIU, 1997). Other exportable natural resources include water, sandstone, and clay processed into bricks and ceramic tiles. Water has now been developed for export and has started to flow to South Africa. The first royalty payment of M142.80 million was received by Lesotho in the FY96/97.

Lesotho’s physical characteristics such as bushman paintings, dinosaur footprints, wildlife parks, environmental parks, and pony trekking, could also support eco-tourism. Despite this potential, few tourists are recorded each year: 169,000 in 1989 with receipts of only US$8 million (this figure had fallen to 155,000 by 1992!). The majority of these came for gambling at the urban hotels rather than for sights in the rural areas. As a result of South Africa's moves to license gambling in many of its towns, the gambling-related tourist revenue could decrease substantially.

Inflation

The period 1980-1993 was characterised by double-digit annual inflation, which in some years, approached 20 percent. A long-term downward trend began in 1992 and reached a single digit (7.9 percent) by 1994. It has since remained below 10 percent. The main effect of inflation on the environment is to reduce the purchasing power of scarce financial resources.

Gross National Product

Apart from the difficulties associated with calculation, GNP is used widely by economists and non-economists alike as an index of economic performance and national income. Although greener measures of national income and economic activities are now being developed, it remains the only widely understood measure. In 1980, Lesotho’s GNP stood at 492 million maloti, but rose steadily to reach 4.5 billion by 1995, representing an average annual growth rate of 16 percent. However in the same period, inflation averaged 14 percent annually so that the real increase in GNP was probably only 2 to 3 percent annually. When expressed in terms of 1980 prices; a process which removes the effect of inflation, the data show an annual GNP growth rate of 3 percent in the period.

Gross national product per individual provides a deeper insight into the relationship between incomes and the environment because these are roughly associated to individuals and households. Disregarding inflation, per capita GNP rose from M370 per annum in 1980 to M2,200 in 1995. Taking inflation into account (1980 prices), it rose from M370 in 1980 to only M374 in 1995 (with a peak of M413 recorded in 1982). The important message is that, while some members of society have become wealthier, the majority of Basotho have not fared any better than in 1980 and the economic position of others may have actually deteriorated. This means that dependence on natural resources and rangelands in particular, may have increased in this period; witness for example the emergence of markets in spiral aloe (Aloe polyphylla), semi precious stones, medicinal plants, and traditional vegetables normally extracted for home use.

Gross Domestic Product

Gross Domestic Product for 1991 stood at 1.74 billion maloti or 452 million maloti in 1980 prices. Growth in GDP averaged 5.4 percent between 1986 and 1991, however the data for the period 1992-95 indicate an improvement of nearly 2 percent in GDP performance with an average growth rate of 7.2 percent. Not surprisingly, considerable variability in GDP figures exists reflecting the high dependence of GDP performance on agricultural performance which itself is highly dependent on stochastic weather conditions. For example, agricultural output in 1989 prices was 119 million maloti in 1991, 59 million in 1992, and 113 million in 1993 reflecting the severe drought conditions of 1992. To mirror this agricultural performance, real GDP (1980 prices) grew at only 0.1 percent in 1992, but grew at 5.4 percent in 1993 reflecting the fact that GDP was uncharacteristically low in 1992.

Dividing economic activity into agriculture, services, and manufacturing allows a clearer analysis of the contribution of the various productive categories in GDP. Sector shares for 3 five-year periods are shown in Table 5. The GDP shares for services and manufacturing show rising trends in the period under consideration, although with weak share growth for manufacturing. Agriculture’s share shows considerable variation although there has been an overall decline over this period. As indicated earlier, the marked variation reflects the short-term effects of weather changes. In the five-year period between 1991 to 1995, it fell to 11 percent indicating not only the increase in the share of project construction, but also a long term decline in agricultural output. In terms of 1989 prices agricultural output fell from 216 million maloti in 1988 to 113 million in 1993. In the period, despite good rains in 1991, output does not exceed its high of 1988 showing a long-term downward trend in productivity.

In most countries, per capita GDP is an indicator not only of the actual economic activity, but is also an indicator of average incomes accruing to residents. For Lesotho, the use of this macroeconomic indicator to infer Lesotho’s income levels is likely to be misleading because of the size of migrant labour earnings from South Africa. In the period 1980-85, net factor income from abroad, comprising largely mine migrant incomes accounted for 93 percent of GDP, but 48 percent of GNP indicating its significance in overall national income. This perverse relation between the macroeconomic aggregates has however come unstuck. In the period from 1991 to 1995, factor income from abroad has fallen to 57 percent of GDP and 36 percent of GNP. Due to increasing share of domestic manufacturing and declining foreign factor incomes as a result of labour retrenchments, the importance of net factor income from abroad in GDP and GNP has declined.

Remitted Income from Abroad

Migrant work is important to Lesotho in several ways:

The Central Bank of Lesotho (1995) estimated the FY92/93 average monthly remittance at M667, of which two-thirds was a cash remittance funnelled through the Deferred Pay Fund or brought in on self, while the balance (M224.37) was in-kind remittance comprising of consumption and productive goods brought in by the migrant workers. Total remittances per individual, which comprise both cash and goods average 71.3 percent of monthly income earned in South Africa excluding bonuses. The effect of migrant income is best understood if one considers that out of the 116,727 migrant workers in the period under consideration, 94 percent were married, affecting in total, the lives of more than half a million people mostly in rural Lesotho. The remaining non-married migrant workers equally affect a significant number of lives in Lesotho because most migrants are from the rural areas where the majority of households live in extended family units.

The most significant policy challenge facing Lesotho lies in this area of migrant work and income. It is a challenge because the total number of migrants is falling each year at the average rate of 3.3 percent due to:

1. falling returns to South Africa’s extractive industry due to rising costs and falling mineral prices;


2. more of South Africans accepting mine work;


3. South Africa offering Lesotho migrant workers permanent residency at their choice; and


4. mechanisation of extractive processes.

It is a significant challenge because it entails responding to an external factor outside the ambit of domestic policy instruments. It is also a significant challenge because potential income losses are significant both on a per capita basis and economy wide.

Although per-capita and total earnings in current prices have been rising with time due largely to unionisation of mine labour, total earnings in real terms (1980 prices) have fallen since 1989 from M257 million to M189 million in 1995. This fall partly reflects the falling number of migrant workers being absorbed in the nineties which peaked in 1989 at 126,733 migrants and hit a historic low of 101,017 employees in 1995. The number of migrants, remittances and deferred pay transfers are given in Table 6 below.

Table 6: Mine Migrant, Deferred Pay Fund, and Migrant Labour Remittances (M million)
Year	Average Number of Migrants	Percent Change	Deferred Pay Fund	Percent Change	Migrant labour Remittances	Percent Change
1989	126,733	-	-	-	956.7	-
1990	125,786	-1	69.4	-	1,106.1	16
1991	122,188	-3	57.0	-18a	1,205.1	9
1992	119,596	-2	53.3	-6	1,299.1	8
1993	116,129	-3	51.6	-3	1,328.7	2
1994	112,722	-3	47.3	-8	1,401.3	5
1995	103,744	-8	52.6	11	1,489.2	6
1996	101,237	-2	52.9	1	1,652.8	11
Mean
SOURCES: Central Bank of Lesotho and Bureau of Statistics (1995). Percentages calculated from given data. a The large decrease reflects the agreed decrease in percentage remitted from 60 to 30 percent.

Migrant labour remittances provide households with more income options and an increased variety of goods and services. Yirgou (1995) found that households that had at least one mine migrant used paraffin as a source of energy more than households without a mine migrant. The latter households depend more on biomass fuels such as dung, fuelwood, and crop residue. Thus migrant labour incomes are inversely related to degradation pressure on the environment. As these incomes decline, pressure on the environment is expected to rise. From the table, it is clear that total remittances have grown by just under the rate of inflation, implying no real increases in migrant income. Given that the population has been rising at 2.6 percent annually, it is obvious that migrant incomes are reaching a declining number of households. This will no doubt amplify the role of rangelands as a source of rural livelihoods.

The Labour Force and Employment

The World Bank (1995) estimated Lesotho's labour force at about 800,000 in 1993. Of this, only 28 percent or 225,000 held formal wage jobs including some 116,000 estimated to be in the South African mines (the 1990s rate of retrenchment from the mines is estimated at 300 per month and the most pessimistic scenario is that of 100 percent retrenchment by the year 2020). The remaining 72 percent or about 575,000 were employed in agriculture and informal sectors in rural and urban areas. It is generally believed that 22,000 - 25,000 people enter the labour force every year, while the economy has the capacity to generate only 6,000 jobs each year. 'Brain drain' is ravaging the economy with the country reported to rank second after Zimbabwe (which ranks first on a per capita basis) in exports of skilled labour to South Africa in 1996. This problem ensures that the necessary skills for combating the structural unemployment are never available.

Balance of Payments

There appears to be a worsening current account deficit (21 percent of GNP) as shown by the deterioration from a deficit of 561 million in 1991 to 931 million in 1995. An alarming import-to-export ratio of 13:1 is recorded in 1991; however it improves to 6:1 in 1995 probably due to recovery of export manufacturing. Despite the current account deficits the overall account has shown a surplus throughout the period, due to a healthy capital account comprising largely Lesotho Highlands Water Project capital transfers which have averaged 82 percent of the capital account over this period. Foreign financial reserves have remained comfortable allowing no less than ten weeks of merchandise imports in the period.

Agriculture in Lesotho is the key sector and a major source of employment within the country. As shown above approximately 81 percent of the population live in rural areas and about 60 to 70 percent of the country's labour force obtain supplemental income from agriculture. However, Lesotho’s agriculture is characterised by low and declining production. The contribution of agriculture to GNP declined from 22 percent in 1971 to 11 percent in 1988 (Bureau of Statistics, 1992). Similarly the contribution of agriculture to GDP decreased from 50 percent in 1974 to 22 percent in 1984 (Ministry of Economic Planning, 1987). In the period 1990-1995 the share of agriculture in GNP averaged 11 percent.

The agricultural sector is increasingly being dominated by livestock activities (Figure 2). In 1966, crop production contributed approximately 60 percent of the value of agricultural output with livestock contributing 40 percent. By 1984, crop production contribution had declined to 22 percent while livestock contribution increased to 78 percent. The contribution of crop production in the agricultural sector peaked in 1990/91 because of favourable weather conditions. The contribution of livestock to agriculture peaked in 1992/93 while crop contribution was at the lowest mainly due to drought.

Land Tenure

In Lesotho land belongs to the Basotho nation and the King holds it in trust for the people. The administration of land is by chiefs and headmen who administer land on behalf of the King. The underlying concept of the customary land tenure system is that land is a national and social asset to be utilised for the benefit of the nation. The system entitles all households to have access to land for residential and agricultural purposes.

Land Use Rights to Residential and Crop Land

To be allocated land an applicant has to be a married male Mosotho, accept the superior and overall authority of the King. To be allocated a residential site an applicant must show good behaviour and loyalty to the chief. To be allocated agricultural land the applicant must have a prior residential allocation. This is important because without a residence there can be no claim to arable land, grazing, reeds, or thatching grass. Once land is allocated, the recipient has certain rights to use the land in his lifetime. Cultivation of arable land is one of the requirements for retaining use of the land. If the allocatee either fails to cultivate fields of two successive years or cultivates fields improperly, the chief may reallocate the land. Furthermore individuals who have more land than their subsistence needs require can be deprived of the land. Both these are, however, uncommon in practice.

Every married male has the right to be allocated a portion of arable land to provide for his subsistence and that of his dependants. In the past, households were allocated three fields, which in most cases were situated in different locations around the village. It is thought that fragmentation of fields originated in the traditional doctrine of equity and the realisation that the risk of total crop loss from natural disasters could be reduced (Williams, 1972). In addition fragmentation meant that a household's fields were not located only in poor lands by spreading the allocation over poor and good soils. It has been hypothesised that each field was for maize, sorghum and wheat (Williams, 1972). The other explanation for the allocation of three fields is that the first field was for paying tax, the second for the home and the third for the children (LASA, 1978). In polygamous households the man or the head of the household was allocated three fields with two more fields provided for each additional wife. Another explanation is that the practice was designed to ensure that all community members had an equitable distribution of fields in terms of the distance from the homestead.

A landholder’s rights to arable land are seasonal. When the land is cultivated the owner has exclusive rights to that land. After the crop is harvested the land becomes open access whereby anybody can exercise secondary rights of grazing animals, under the practice of Mohoang which involves community livestock sequentially grazing stover from one field to the next. In addition anybody can collect the stover for fuel, wild vegetables, dung for fuel and plastering etc. The practice of Mohoang is becoming less prevalent. Nowadays it is common for landowners to cut the maize or sorghum stalks for their private use or to exclusively graze the stover in situ.

With increasing population pressure, arable landlessness has been increasing. According to the 1970 Census of Agriculture, landless households accounted for 13 percent of the total population in 1970; this increased to 25 percent in 1986 (Bureau of Statistics and Ministry of Agriculture, 1990). In FY86/87, 16 percent of the rural households reported having no fields and livestock (Bureau of Statistics, 1988).

Land Use Rights to Cattle Posts and Village Grazing Areas

The Mountain rangeland is divided into 22 ward areas controlled by Lesotho’s 22 principal or ward chiefs. A household wishing to establish a permanent cattle post applies to the principal chief for an access permit into the highland cattle post. Access to highland rangeland entitles the stockholder to graze anywhere in the rangeland held by the principal chief. Access to highland pasture does not entitle one to prevent entry by others, however. Once a cattle post is established, feasible livestock walking distances and managerial expedience determines the size of the area available to the stockholder.

Lesotho villages were initially developed on areas comprising cropland, woodlands, grasslands, and a supply of fresh drinking water within walking distance. The purpose of village grazing land was to complement agriculture by providing agricultural land through land conversions as well as providing forage for draft animals. Unlike the cattle post regime, no formal permission is required for pasturing livestock. The only requirement is ownership of livestock and residency in the village controlling the pasture. The grazing area is managed through a system called leboella. This is a rotational system in which the chief divides the grazing area into parcels. At any one time, only one parcel is open for grazing while the remaining parcels are allowed to recover.

In order to address the land tenure system in the country the 1979 Land Act was introduced. This Act introduces the leasehold system of land tenure. The major purpose of the Act is to promote agricultural production through equitable distribution to households interested in increasing agricultural output. The Act provides for the establishment of Selected Agricultural Areas (SAAs) which are designated by Government for agricultural development purposes. The traditional laws and practices relating to land use and tenure have prevailed to this day, despite the enactment of the 1979 Land Act, which has remained largely unimplemented.

Crop Production

The major crops grown in Lesotho are maize, wheat, sorghum, beans and peas. Grains are the most important crops in terms of area allocated to crop production. The average area allocated to grain production was 75 percent of the total arable in the country during FY73/74-FY88/89 period (Bureau of Statistics and Ministry of Agriculture, 1994). Most crops are grown during summer. Wheat and peas are grown in summer and winter. Winter wheat and peas are grown in the Lowlands while summer wheat and peas are grown in the Mountains. Crop production is characterised by a high proportion of subsistence farming, with over 70 percent being consumed and not marketed.

Lesotho’s crop agriculture has experienced continuous declines since 1978/79. The causes of the declining crop production include drought, low yields, low fertiliser application rates, low and erratic rainfall, hail, frost, and soil erosion. Lesotho is increasingly relying on imports as a result of the low and declining crop production. The imports are mainly from South Africa.

One peculiar thing is that even though population pressure on arable land is increasing a large proportion of arable land is left fallow each year. Even though there is increasing pressure on arable land, land under cultivation declined from 450,000 ha in 1960 to 310,000 ha in 1988 (Bureau of Statistics and Ministry of Agriculture, 1990). There is also increasing fallow land. Between FY73/74 and FY88/89 fallow land averaged 20 percent of the total arable land per year.

Livestock Production

The Lesotho's livestock sector consists of cattle, sheep, goats, horses, donkeys, pigs, and poultry. Livestock are kept for both economic and social reasons. Cattle are raised for mostly subsistence use including draught power, milk, fuel (dung), and meat. Cattle are also kept for socio-cultural uses such as bohali (bride-wealth) and ceremonies. The sheep are of the merino type and are raised for the sale of their wool, slaughter as well as for ceremonial purposes. The goats are of the Angora type and are raised for the sale of mohair and ceremonial purposes. Horses and donkeys mostly serve transportation functions in the remote rugged interior of the country. Donkeys are used for transporting goods while horses are used for human transportation. The largest single monetary contribution to cash income from livestock is that provided by sales of wool and mohair. Wool and mohair are also the major agricultural exports from Lesotho. Table 7 shows the trend in livestock numbers in Lesotho.

Table 7: Number of Livestock in Lesotho (‘000)

Source: Bureau of Statistics and Ministry of Agriculture. 1996.

The livestock sub-sector is dominated by small holders with the average number of cattle, sheep and goats per household being 3, 43, and 25, respectively (Mochebelele and Mokitimi, 1992). The ownership of livestock is skewed. Approximately 8 percent of the households are estimated to own half the country's livestock. This figure might be slightly higher because of the practice of mafisa. In Lesotho, ownership of livestock needs to be distinguished from use or herding because of the widespread practice of mafisa which is a system of livestock borrowing and lending which generally gives the holder of the animals rights to wool, mohair, milk and draught power while the owner retains title to the inventory and progeny.

The major problems facing the Lesotho livestock sector is range deterioration as a result of overstocking. Overstocking also affects livestock productivity. The poor nutrition as a result of overstocking gives rise to low reproductive rates, milk production, draught power, and fleece weights and ultimately low incomes from livestock production.

Range Utilisation and Management

About 80 percent of Lesotho’s land area may be regarded as rangeland. Communities enjoy usufructuary rights. Although rangelands in Lesotho are open-access resource, communities have defined territorial boundaries where they can graze their animals. The Lesotho livestock system is characterised by the practice of transhumance; livestock are moved to the cattle posts in the mountains in summer and then moved to the lowlands in winter. In the mountains, livestock are moved to lower elevation areas or valleys in winter. The seasonal movement of livestock from the Lowlands to the Mountains is becoming one of the major causes of overstocking in the mountains.

Chiefs are responsible for administering range utilisation. Village chiefs are responsible for village grazing areas and principal chiefs are responsible for cattle post grazing areas. Chiefs are also responsible for the administration of maboella. The system of maboella involves reserving certain parts of village rangelands for the rejuvenation of grass, protection of thatching grass, reed beds, tree planting, and rotational grazing. Maboella is practised in most cases during the summer months. The main purpose of maboella is to reserve areas of thatching grass and croplands from grazing during the summer months. The grasses may not be grazed until they have been cut in July or August. Maboella are usually declared as soon as crops and thatching grasses have attained sufficient growth to attract animals. The opening of maboella is generally when harvesting is completed though the range maboella are normally declared open much earlier.

The Laws of Lerotholi (Melao ea Lerotholi, 1959) explicitly point out that grazing permits are required for cattle post areas. The purpose of grazing permits is to monitor the movements of livestock to cattle posts and thus make it possible to graze each particular area in accordance with its carrying capacity. Grazing permits are issued by, or on behalf of the principal chiefs and specify the number of animals which may be moved to a cattle post, the permitted location of grazing within a dip tank area, and the number of animals which may be grazed.

In recent times the government has introduced Village Development Councils (VDCs) with one of their responsibilities being the management of rangelands. Chiefs who see this as a way of encroaching on their powers have opposed this move. This has resulted in conflicts over the management of rangelands, which have recently led to loss of human life.

One of major environmental problems facing Lesotho is overgrazing which is caused by overstocking. Estimates of overstocking range between 50 and 300 percent. The various measures undertaken in Lesotho are designed to control livestock number so as to balance stocking rates with carrying capacities. The approach to range management in Lesotho is based on range succession model. The succession model uses stocking rates as the main management tool. The government of Lesotho has intervened in the administration of rangelands through legislation. The Land Husbandry Act 1969 empowers the Minister of Agriculture to make regulations to ensure proper conservation and management of agricultural land. A series of range management and grazing control regulations followed. These include Grazing Control and Pasture Management Regulations 1973 and Grazing Control and management regulations of 1977 (Dobb, 1985). These were followed by the Range Management and Grazing Control Regulations of 1980. The 1980 regulations were amended in 1986 by introducing stiffer penalties for range encroachment.

The Government and donor community felt that the chieftaincy had become incapable of managing rangelands effectively and as a result introduced Grazing Associations, which operate in Range Management Areas (RMAs). It is envisaged that if management is given to livestock owners themselves, effective management and conservation would increase since they have vested interests. The first RMA was established in 1978 and since that time several RMAs have been established.

The Government of Lesotho has also tried to control the importation of livestock through import taxes. Livestock import taxes were introduced in 1984 as a means of controlling the importation of animals. In the 1970s wages in the RSA mines increased significantly and Basotho miners invested the most of their earnings in purchasing cattle. The imports of cattle increased by 1,400 percent between 1976 and 1980. Under the Agricultural Marketing (Livestock Import Fees) regulations 1984 as amended, import fees are to be paid. There has been a significant reduction in livestock imports since 1984. Government has also embarked on the Livestock Exchange and Small Stock Culling Programmes. The Livestock Exchange Programme involves female goats for breeding purposes. In this programme a farmer is given 2 pure-bred angora goats in exchange for 3 unimproved goats. The programme is financed through the EU-supported Stabex programme. The Small Stock Culling Programme involves the removal of coloured, and old and unproductive sheep and goats from the range. Government has also attempted to introduce grazing fees in order to reduce livestock numbers. However, this has never been implemented.

Physical Description

The Pelaneng-Bokong Range Management Area (RMA) is located in the mountain zone of Leribe district within the watershed of the western side of the Malibamatšo River (Figure 3). Two other rivers are important to the hydrological systems of the RMA. The Pelaneng river drains the northern third of the RMA while Bokong/Bokoaneng systems traversing through the centre of the RMA and joins the Malibamatšo river at the southern tip of the RMA. Elevations range between 1,900 metres at Ha Sepinare in the south to 3,198 metres at Pel’a Tšoeu on the escarpment in the northern cattle post area. The topography over most of the area is very steep and highly dissected. slopes in excess of 60 percent are common on the winter ranges in the valleys west of the villages.

The RMA is about 35,949 ha in size. Of this, roughly 12,000 ha is considered cattle post grazing. The remaining area is composed primarily of village or winter grazing area. A small portion of the village areas is arable and residential land. The forms of land use are readily apparent: residential, cropland and village grazing areas (approx. 20 percent); summer grazing land (approx. 38 percent) on the highland parts of the RMA drop steeply to the east towards the Malibamatšo river into winter grazing land (approx. 42 percent). The village grazing areas, Malibamatšo river which forms the eastern boundary of the RMA. According to the Grazing Association’s records of April 1998, there were 7,127 cattle, 349 horses, 11 mules, 723 donkeys, 11, 879 sheep, and 9,787 goats.

Our study area also comprises of an off-RMA site of approximately equal size and socio-economic characteristics. However, in the off-RMA site the grazing and livestock management are traditional.

Socio-economic Conditions

The RMA contains 17 villages organised under 4 area chiefs. The 1986 demographic data indicates that the area had a population of 5,397 persons with 1,058 households (MoA Report). A total of 700 households are members of the association managing the RMA. The most important economic activity is agriculture with livestock being the major component. The climatic conditions and physiography impose serious constraints on crop farming. Approximately, 74 percent of the households within the RMA manage livestock. In this group, 19 percent of the households are female head.

The Lesotho Highland Water Project has opened access to this remote area of the country. As a result many socio-economic services such as clinics, schools, and businesses have improved.

Figure 3: Map of the Research Site

Scale: 1:250,000

BCP Basotholand Congress Party

BNP Basotho National Party

CHAL Christian Health Association of Lesotho

FD Forestry Division

FY Fiscal year

GA Grazing Association

GDP Gross Domestic Product

GNP Gross National Product

LHDA Lesotho Highlands Development Authority

LWP Lesotho Woodlot Project

NES National Environment Secretariat

NUL National University of Lesotho

RMA Range Management Area

SAA Selected Agricultural Area

SABAP Southern African Birds Atlas Project

SADC Southern African Development Community

SRV Senqu River Valley

SSA Sub-Sahara Africa

VDC Village Development Council

The Spanish Team has vast experience of temperate zone mountains but no direct data from Southern Africa. This section outlines how we propose to gather climatic and hydrological data.

Climate and Hydrology

Rough climatic data can be obtained from different sources. Climatic atlases of the world or of Africa are available. More detailed maps are supplied by the papers and book by R. Schulze from South Africa. However, these data are unsuitable, as Lesotho is a very rugged country, where topoclimatic effects are important, and where measurements can differ widely between very close points. Regional climatic measurements have been taken from a chapter on climate, by Schulze, in the book edited recently by Cowling et al. on the vegetation of Southern Africa. The summary of the data (mainly climatic data but also some soil and vegetation data) for Lesotho are given below:

Mean daily solar radiation for January: 26-34 MJm^-2d^-1. (28-30 in the selected sites)
Same variable for July: 14-18 MJm^-2d^-1 (16-18)
Mean annual temperature: 10-16 °C (12-14)
Mean of daily maximum temperature in January: 20-30 °C (22.5-25)
Mean of daily minimum temperature in July: -2 +2 °C (-2 - 0)
Diurnal temperature ranges in January: 10 - 16 °C (12 - 14)
Diurnal temperature ranges in July: 10 - 16 °C (12 - 14)
Average date of the first frost:1 - 31 March (1 - 15 March)
Average duration of period with frosts: Over 200 days (over 225 days)
Mean annual precipitation: 500 - 1250 mm (500 - 750 mm)
Coefficient of variation of precipitation: 20 - 35 % (25 - 30)
Coefficient of concentration of precipitation : 30 - 60 % (30 - 50)
Rainfall seasonality: January-February (January)
Interception loss for natural vegetation: 1 - 2 mm rainday^-1 (1 - 1.5)
Lightning ground density: 4 - 20 flashes km ^-2 yr^-1 (4 - 8)
Potential annual evaporation: 1200 - 2200 mm (1750 - 2000)
Potential January evaporation: 100 - 250 mm (200 - 250)
Potential July evaporation: 80 - 140 mm (100 - 120)
Percentage of days with soil moisture stress in January: 20 - 80 % (60 - 70 %)
Percentage of days with soil moisture stress in July: 80 - 100 % (80 - 90)
Mean annual primary production: 6 - 15 t ha ^-1 season^-1 (8 - 12)
Interannual variability of net primary production: 20 - 50 % (30 - 40).

Additional data can be obtained from the book by Chakela (1981), which includes valuable data on climate, soils and vegetation for the Roma and Maliele catchments in Lesotho. While these areas may be representative of the whole country, the data are not useful for the Bokong catchment, which has a much higher altitude. Nevertheless the data can be included for regional syntheses. According to Chakela, the mean annual temperature at Roma is about 15°C, with monthly values between 7°C in July and 22°C in January. For the Leribe station, corresponding data are 13.5°C, 7°C (in June) and 19.5°C (in January). Also given are data from Maputsoe station (14, 7 and 20°C respectively). Rainfall data are also useful for the broader, regional studies. In Roma, the annual values range between 520 and 1300 mm, with most of the rain recorded between October and March. Rainfall events are quite irregular, with coefficients of variation ranging from 50 to 150%. For Leribe, the average rainfall is 815 mm/year, reaching peaks of 1350 mm (1909) and lows of less than 500 mm (1965). Coefficients of variation are as high as in the Roma catchment or even higher. The book by Chakela includes data on soils and soil loss in the studied catchments, but these are of doubtful utility for other catchments or for regional syntheses.

The hydrological map of Lesotho provides another source of data. This map, by Arduino, Bono and Del Sette, was issued in 1994 as a by-product of the Highland Water Project. It includes not only hydrologic data but also geologic and climatic information. The scale, 1:300 000, is detailed enough to supply some useful data at the catchment level, but is not sufficient for modelling. The map shows the lithologic background of the country, which is mostly covered by the so-called Lesotho formation, a layer of amygdaloid basalt forming fissured rocks, with a thickness attaining 1600 m and having moderate to low water potential.

Rainfall

The map also includes smaller maps of the rainfall distribution in Lesotho, as well as tables of temperature data for 46 stations and the flow of selected rivers. For the whole of Lesotho, precipitation is 769 mm/year, with the highest amount recorded in January (about 120 mm) and the lowest in June and July (15 mm each). The highest rainfall and snowfall values are recorded from the mountain range in the north and from the range that divides the main catchments of the rivers Senqu (Orange) and Mohokare (Caledon). The study site is located close to this divide, and it is expected that it experiences high precipitation. According to the maps, the amount of rainfall in the study area is about 900 mm/year (600 mm/year of effective precipitation). A rainfall time series of about 65 years' duration is available for six stations. Of these, the closest to the study area is the Paray Mission station, at only 22 km from the lowest point of the Bokong catchment, and at an altitude of 2160 m. The mean annual precipitation over the last 65 years is 609 mm. Five- year running means range between 500 and 900 mm, with a peak of 1250 mm in 1937 and a low of 250 mm in the year 1991. A linear regression fit between elevation and rainfall for the Senqu catchment is also presented in the map; from this, the expected rainfall in the middle of Bokong river is about 1000 mm/year but, given the data of the Paray Mission station, perhaps the expected rainfall should be a bit less than that.

Mean rainfall data are available for a station closer than the former to the study site. It is the Rampai Pass station, in the Malibamatšo watershed, at an elevation of 2300 m. The distance to the upper reaches of Bokong watershed is only about 10 km, and the elevation is similar to that of the study location. The annual rainfall there is 850 mm, which is close to the value suggested from the Paray Mission station. Monthly distribution of precipitation shows that most precipitation occurs in January (134 mm) and the lowest in July (12 mm). The data series of 59 years is reliable enough.

Temperature

Temperature data are much more scarce than rainfall data. There are records for several stations, including the Rampai Pass. The only data found to date is the mean annual temperature of 10.8°C. The mean temperatures at the study site should be slightly lower. The data are insufficient for modelling purposes but at least allow an estimate of evapotranspiration rate to be made - it amounts to 517 mm/year at Rampai Pass. The difference between the mean rainfall and this value is 333 mm, 39% of the total precipitation. Availability of water is, therefore, higher than the average for the country but the rugged, steep terrain limits the availability of water for the plants. The lack of monthly temperature data prevents an estimate of many climatic indexes and the bioclimatic characterisation of the study area being made. Using the few climatic indexes that are computable (Köppen, Lang, Thornwaite, etc), the Bokong catchment appears to belong to the climatically- humid areas. Gaussen's bioclimatic classification assigns this area to the temperate- climate group and, within this, to the mesoxerochimenic climate, with 3-4 dry or cold months and mean temperature below 15°C. The difficulty with calculations from indexes and classifications is that the expected vegetation under the climatic conditions described is a permanent forest. However, there are no forests in Lesotho! Perhaps the steep slopes or the soil features explain their absence.

Some monthly temperature data exist for three mountain sites. The altitude of these sites is similar to that of the Bokong valley, between 2250 - 3050 m. These are in the north-east of the country, at the Oxbow point, which will be referred to later in the context of flow data, and are closest to the Bokong Catchment. Oxbow lies at the head of the Malibamatšo River, at 2630 m. At Mokothlong (2250 m), mean monthly temperatures are above 0°C throughout the year, with the absolute maxima being recorded in January (24.7°C). Minima below 0°C are recorded in June, July and August, bringing the risk of frost for about three months of the year. Absolute minimum is -3.5°C. For Oxbow, the means are also always above 0°C but the absolute maxima, also in January, is recorded at 18.2°C, with the absolute minimum recorded being -5.9°C in July; the months of frost are May to September. At Letseng-la-Draai (3050 m), means are above 0°C (although the June mean is only 0.2°C), maximum is 16.4°C and there are 6 months that have the possibility of frost, from April to September.

A good characterisation of the Lesotho mountain climate is possible, using the monthly data. At low elevations (about 2000 m), mean monthly temperatures fall below 5°C only in July, there are slight thermic limitations to plant growth, and plants may suffer from occasional frosts between June and August. There are some limitations due to lack of water during the dry season in the driest points. At Mokothlong, where the humidity index of Emberger is 98, there is a dry period, mainly in July and August. At Oxbow, with lower mean temperatures and higher precipitations, there is no dry period at all (the Emberger humidity index is greater than 430) but there is a clear thermic limitation to plant growth from April to September, when mean monthly temperatures are below 7.5°C. During the same period, frosts are likely, at least when there is no snow but at 2600 m.a.s.l. there is usually a snow cover during that period, at least on south-facing slopes.

Wind

The hydrological map of the country also includes some wind data. Lesotho is not very windy - in fact, it is calm for 62 % of the time. Dominant winds come from the west, north or south, with a rare touch of easterly winds. This asymmetry, combined with the orientation of the main mountain ranges, creates a clear windward-leeward effect, which affect the precipitation and vegetation distribution. Most of the country is exposed to the wind from the dry Kalahari, and sheltered from wet, Indian Ocean winds. This also explains the relative aridity of the area. The Bokong River runs north-south but the catchment is surrounded by mountains on all four sides.

River Flow

There are a number of gauging stations across Lesotho, recording data mainly for the Highlands Water Project. One of these stations lies just next to the outlet of the Bokong River to the Malibamatšo River, and records the outflow of the catchment of the former, embracing an area of 403 square kilometres. The minimum annual discharge on record is zero, meaning that the Bokong River dries out in some years, showing that the area is relatively dry. Mean annual discharge is 1930 litres/sec, with peaks above 5000 litres when heavy rainfall brings a thaw to the accumulated snow. For the Bokong River these are the only flow data available. The upper reaches of the Malibamatšo River, not far from the study area, have several operating gauging stations, with much wider capabilities. Mean discharge in these points is higher than in the Bokong River, between 3000 and 4000 litres/sec even though the catchments are much smaller. The hydrologic conditions seem similar otherwise. One of these points, the Oxbow gauge, recorded the following values between 1969 and 1988:

These data highlight the erosive potential of the precipitation, as most of the water discharges as runoff. Of course, the data do not refer specifically to the study site but the role of runoff generally cannot be underestimated.

Soil and Plant Cover

Data on the soils of Lesotho in general, and of the study area in particular, have not yet been compiled. The published map of the Lesotho land systems by Bawden and Carroll includes some information about the main soil groups over the country. In the Bokong catchment and in the upper Malibamatšo watershed there are four or five dominant soil groups. Over half of the area is covered by lithosols or calcimorphic soils over steep, grass-covered slopes. More primitive lithosols and raw mineral soils are found on higher slopes and in the divide line on the Maluiti Range, where also many boggy sponges are found. Some vertisols are developed in the bottom of valleys, above and below the Khatse dam. These areas with vertisols are suitable for cultivation, according to the map, and farming does take place there. The remainder of the study zone is unsuitable for cultivation, and only suitable for grazing. However, most of the bottom of the Malibamatšo valley was cultivated prior to the building of the Khatse dam, and many plots of farmed land still remain on the lower slopes of this valley and the Bokong valley. The larger part of the area is used only for grazing, and sustains large stocks of cattle, sheep and some horses. Until recently, the access of herds to all the grazing lands was unrestricted, and there are many signs of overgrazing. The middle slopes show signs of man-made or cattle-made erosion (scars, "pied de vache" tracks, areas stripped out of grass, etc), as well as others perhaps of natural origin (solifluction lobes, etc). Now the upper slopes, which are much more fragile and can only sustain small herds, are free of livestock, although there is always some clandestine grazing.

Most of the country of Lesotho lies above the timberline. In the eastern slopes of the Drakensberg, in Natal, there are remains of Podocarpus montane forest between 1300 and 1800 m. In Lesotho, the potential upper limit of forest is at 2150 m but no forest remains. Introduced trees grow on the lowlands, mainly around urban settlements and along the rivers. Native forests, if they existed, disappeared long ago. In the Highlands only some shrubs remain, especially next to the mountain ravines, and occasionally these plants form a dense cover, almost impenetrable in places. But the main cover of the highlands and the only one on the study area is grassland. Dominant species are Themeda triandra and Festuca caprina. The former species is found in the warmest places, at lower altitudes and on north-facing slopes, while the latter grows at higher elevations, together with tussocks of Merxmuelleria drakensbergensis. Above the upper limit of this montane grassland (2900 m) the afroalpine belt is found, with patches of sclerophyllous heath communities, with Erica dominans, E. glaphyra, Helychrysum trilineatum, etc.

The most interesting vegetation of Lesotho is the spongy mires of the uppermost levels of the Drakensberg and Maluti Mountains. About 55 large boggy areas are recorded on the main map of Lesotho, the largest being associated with the sources of the Orange River. The actual number of mires should be much greater, as most of the boggy areas of small size remain unrecorded. There are no large mires on the Bokong watershed, the closest being those on the watershed of the Motete River, a tributary of the Malibamatšo. The watersheds of the latter have also several large spongy areas. Small mires are found, of course, all over the top levels of the Lesotho highlands. Next to Mafika Pass (3090 m), at the head of Bokong watershed, there are several of these, and probably more will be found along the divide line of the Senqu and Mohokare watersheds, which border the Bokong catchment on the western side. Peat bogs are excellent buffers, which regulate the supply of water by retaining it and delivering it during the dry season. Moreover, the bogs form a peculiar ecosystem, rather common in the arctic and in the mountains of the northern hemisphere but quite scarce in Africa. Drakensberg bogs, being isolated for millions of years from other similar ecosystems, have developed a peculiar set of plant and animal species, which are exclusive to them. Several plant, amphibians and insect microendemics restricted to the montane bogs have been recorded, and no doubt, several species remain to be discovered there. Protection of these sensitive areas from overgrazing and mining is thus badly needed. Of special concern is the Highland Waters Project, and the possible destruction or drying of many of these bogs.

Besides the peat bogs, the mountains of Lesotho have many other endemics configuring the Eastern Mountain Centre of endemisms. While most of the endemic species of this centre inhabit the eastern slopes, in Kwazulu-Natal, significant number of these are found also in Lesotho. Over 29% of the flora of this centre is made up of endemic species. Families with a high percentage of endemics are Asteraceae, with 118 species (41%), Scrophulariaceae (46%) and Ericaceae (58%).

Related Subjects

Some historical background is required to understand the evolution of the soils on the mountain areas of Lesotho. The zone was formerly inhabited by hunter-gatherers cultures, such as the San. The Sotho entered the country during the last centuries and slowly drove the San away. The nineteenth century witnessed a massive influx of the Sotho, fleeing away from the Zulu and later from the Boers and the British. Wars against these forces and between the different clans of the Basotho took place throughout the century. Until 1966, the country was ruled by Britain. During these years, plough farming was extended over the mountain areas, and the erosion problems increased dramatically. The first measures against erosion were taken during the 1930s, and several programmes of soil restoration have been undertaken since then, or are still underway.

One of the striking features of Lesotho, which goes some way to explaining the intensity of the erosion processes is the lack of forest. At least five hypotheses have been proposed to explain this absence. Some authors say that the arrival of Bantu peoples, with their technology of iron smelting quickly deprived the country of all the forests. For other authors, the forests were cut and burned to keep livestock. Soil and climatic origins have been invoked also. The most probable hypothesis seems to be a combination of climatic and anthropic origins. Given that on most of the mountains the dry period coincides with the cold part of the year, the plant cover is markedly seasonal. There is high production during the summer, when there is plenty of water and high temperatures, and low production during winter. This favours the accumulation of dry biomass at the end of the winter, which is very sensitive to fires. Frequency of thunderstorms and lightning at this time is quite high, and natural fires would have been very frequent. The conditions favour the natural selection of pyrophitic species, which are able to withstand repeated fires, and it is possible that the farmers and shepherds assisted in this selection. The scarcity of trees and shrubs in the Highlands relative to the proportion outside the area agrees with this hypothesis: it is worthless to invest in a biomass capital if the stems are being burned every year.

Water shortages are probably of much greater importance than temperature constraints for the growth of grassland cover in the Lesotho mountains. O’Connor & Bredenkamp show a clear linear relationship between mean rainfall and mean herbage yield. As the rainy season coincides with the summer, when temperatures are relatively high, cold conditions do not reduce the positive influence of altitude on rainfall. Of course, in the highest parts of the Bokong valley, above 3000 m, temperatures are low even in summer, and production is probably limited. But in the lower and middle parts of the valley, where the study area is located, the relationship between elevation and production probably holds. This relationship is made up of two separate relationships, viz, the increase of precipitation with altitude (an increase of 38 mm every 100 m) and the increase of production with rainfall (an increase of 100 kg/ha every 200 mm of rainfall).