• At the workshop, an additional task (Task 0) was identified, namely, the production of site/country reviews to provide firm base lines for the new research, to maximise the exchange of information between the partners and to facilitate understanding of the issues between the different disciplines and countries.

• Fundamental to the success of this project is the bridging of the discipline barriers between the physical, biological, social and economic sciences. To date, a gratifying degree of inter-disciplinary co-operation and cross fertilisation has been achieved.

• At the workshop, the difficulties arising from the budget shortfall were discussed. Each of the partners undertook to seek additional sources of funding and direct and indirect funding. In the individual reports, the very significant additional resources provide by others are recorded. This was particularly important in the case of Lesotho where additional funds to support both field work and equipment purchase have been secured. Thus fieldwork over and above that envisaged in the Technical Annex can be carried out, allowing all three country teams to proceed on an approximately equal basis. Due to funding constraints, the Botswana team decided that the detailed work could only take place in the sandveld villages and in this 3-year project, no original data will be collected on the hardveld.

• Field and desk studies are proceeding on the three sites with inputs from the EC partners, essentially as envisaged in the Technical Annex; details are given in the individual reports and Annex 1.

• The project has generated considerable interest. Papers outlining our community-orientated, inter-disciplinary approach and its components have been presented at several meetings (see individual partner reports) including the International Geosphere Biosphere Programme 5th Scientific Advisory Council and National Advisory Committee in Nairobi (Sept 1-7, 1998). The project was quoted by the Executive Director of IGBP as an indicator of future research trends and enthusiastically received by the Director of IHDP. The project has been accepted as part of the core programme of Focus 3 of the Global Change and Terrestrial Ecology Programme (GCTE). It is anticipated that close links will be established with the Global Terrestrial Observing System (GTOS) through Marion Cheatle, with LUCC and IGBP-DIS. Satellite imagery will be supplied free of charge by Dr Gerard Szejwach, the Executive Director of IGBP-DIS/CNRM.

• START continues to provide support for African members of the team to attend meetings including Dr Totolo’s attendance in Nairobi. Dr Totolo is also Coordinator for the evolving Kalahari Transect Project, and links have been established with the two other INCO-DC projects in southern Africa.

• After some initial problems, effective electronic links have been established between the partners and a web-site set up for the project. These links will be further developed and enhanced during the course of the project.

Dissemination Activities

A web site has been set up (http:/www.cazs.bangor.ac.uk/rangeland) and reports will be posted on it as they appear. A flyer, outlining the aims and objectives of the project, has been produced and distributed to partners and interested parties.

Professor Wyn Jones attended the International Geosphere Biosphere Programme 5th Scientific Advisory Council and National Advisory Committee in Nairobi (Sept 1-7, 1998).

Supplementary Funding

Professor Wyn Jones successfully assisted the Lesotho team to secure funding from the British High Commissioner in Maseru.

Dr Young and Dr Hoffman prepared a proposal for DFID funding for work on crops in Paulshoek.

Future Activities

Professor Gareth Wyn Jones and Dr Einir Young will visit southern Africa in March, 1999 to coincide with the mid-term workshop in Paulshoek, provisionally planned for 8th-11th March. Dr Ian Robinson’s next visit is currently being negotiated. Coordinating and monitoring activities will continue as planned. Professor R G Wyn Jones

Task f. Assess the availability of other rangeland products. An MSc project investigating the use and valuation of fuel wood resources was started during the period 1997/98. PRA workshops and individual household surveys were conducted to investigate the full complement of species and quantities used, and to assess the change in abundance over time. Initial results indicate that 12 plants form the main firewood species used and each of the 130 households in Paulshoek uses on average 1.5 tonnes of fuelwood each year. Except for the invasive, toxic shrub, Galenia africana, all other species have declined in abundance since 1940. This means that Paulshoek residents are currently spending up to 4.5 hours per day collecting firewood. Two field experiments investigating the impact of firewood collection on regrowth and recruitment of key species have been started.

Medicinal plants, taken from the rangeland, are also used by Paulshoek residents. A BSc (Honours) thesis has been initiated to investigate the sustainable use and impact of medicinal plant collection on several key species in the region.

Finally, an eco-tourism campsite has been initiated in the region, as a means of generating additional income for people in the village. Limited assistance, with the marketing strategy and layout of the campsite, has been provided by members of the research team.

Figure 1: The (a) plant, (b) invertebrate, (c) small mammal, and (d) bird community structure on the communal and commercial rangeland. Plant community structure is in terms of percentage plant cover while invertebrate, small mammal and bird community structure is represented by the number of individuals within a species or functional type captured during sampling.

Task g. Basic climatic data. Three rainfall stations have been established in Paulshoek and monthly records have been collected since Jul 1996 (Table 3). Additional material for the development of a "manned" weather station has been purchased and this will be set up in Paulshoek during the next few months. An inexpensive, self-powered, digital weather station measuring temperature, wind speed, relative humidity and rainfall has been identified and will be purchased and established at a site in Paulshoek during the next financial year.

Table 3. Annual rainfall totals of three stations in the communal area of Paulshoek and one at a neighbouring commercial farm (Rooiwal). Data collection started in July 1996.

Station	Rainfall station
	Windpoort	Paulshoek	Slooitjiesdam	Rooiwal
1996 (Jul-Dec only)	155	135	114	-
1997	206	119	161	-
1998 (Jan-Aug only)	76	26	17.5	54.5

Work package 3. Socio-economic data collection and analysis

Task a. Characterize the social structure of the communities. A synthesis of what is known of the social structure of the Paulshoek community was provided in our first progress report. A more detailed analysis of this aspect of the project has started with the appointment of Ms Hayley Rodkin to the project. In addition, senior research associate, Dr Rick Rohde has conducted an extensive literature review on the subject. He has compiled a bibliography on material related to socio-economic and political aspects of Paulshoek, Leliefontein and Namaqualand. One of the first tasks will be to build on this base-line data to develop a typology of village families appropriate to the project's emphasis on the relationship between the village economy and rangeland/natural resource use. A research programme has been developed and field work will start towards the end of 1998.

Task b. Characterize the land tenure and water access regimes. The land tenure system as it relates to grazing, cropping and water rights has been determined in some detail during the course of the last year, although this will form an on-going focus of he project. Transhumance patterns of the approximately 30 herds using the commons have been mapped. These movement patterns will be monitored on a monthly basis and form part of the livestock census records.

Task c. Characterize the structure of the agropastoral systems. The size, composition and ownership of the herds have been determined. Stock census records from 1971 have been located and provide a long-term perspective on current stocking levels in the village (Fig. 2). Two neighbouring commercial farmers have also been approached during the last year and stock census records of their enterprises will be included in our further comparative analyses. A detailed stock census record book has been established with the help of Dr Ian Robinson and has been implemented from August 1998. A member of the Paulshoek community, Mr Mervin Cloete, has been employed as a field assistant to collect the data. It is clear that 1998 is going to be a major drought year and the impacts of drought on livestock numbers will form an important part of our investigations.

Figure 2. Long term stock census records of the approximately 30 herds in Paulshoek from 1971-1998 showing changes in goat and sheep totals as well as the ratio of sheep to goats.

Task d. Determine the source of livelihoods. Little progress has been made on this aspect of the project to date but will form a major focus in the coming year.

Task e. Assess the impact of rangeland state and variability on rural livelihoods. While we now understand how heavy grazing has affected the rangeland, we do not know how this in turn affects rural livelihoods. The role of the current drought on declining agricultural production and livestock numbers will form a major focus in the coming year.

Task f. Develop long-term data sets relating to landuse/land cover change and population growth. A search of the State Archives has been carried out for photos of Namaqualand landscapes in order to supplement a small collection of archival photos at NBI for the purpose of pursuing research into the social and environmental history of the region. Dr Coleen Vogel from the University of the Witwatersrand has also initiated her project together with an MSc student from the same institution.

Work package 4. Resource management and policy analysis

Task a. Determine the influence of different landuse practices on rangeland resources. Firewood collection plays a potentially destructive role in natural ecosystems. Two field experiments have been initiated in this regard and will be completed by April 1999. In addition, the impact of commercial and commercial livestock production practices has been studied in some detail (see earlier). The implications of the changes that have been observed for livestock production will now be addressed.

Task b. Determine the influence of policy and institutions on rangeland resources. Numerous consultations with governmental and non-governmental organisations have taken place during the course of the year in an effort to determine the influence of policy and institutions on rangeland resources. The most important of these are: The Department of Health and Developmental Social Welfare, The Agricultural Research Council, The Department of Land Affairs (in the Cape Town and Kimberley offices), the South African Museum, Surplus Peoples Project, Legal Resources Centre, Operation Hunger and several other organisations active in land reform and development in Namaqualand (e.g. Agricultural Forum Reference Group of the District Planning Committee in Springbok).

Task c. Determine the impact of government intervention. The implementation of land reform is likely to form the single most important political initiative influencing the course of the Global Change and Subsistence Rangelands research project in South Africa. The success of land reform is dependent on several factors, one of which is the smooth interlinking of political institutions across the village, district and provincial levels. At the village level, the dynamics of informal social institutions and "traditional" patterns of common practice are important determinants to the sustainability of development interventions such as land reform. In order to formulate local rangeland management plans it is necessary to understand the dynamic web of social relationships embodied in formal and informal village institutions. Therefore, research into the institutional dynamics of land use in Paulshoek will serve to document micro-level processes as well as to feed such documentation back to relevant institutions at "higher" district and provincial levels. Micro- economic research conducted at the family level in Paulshoek will also contribute to the formulation of livelihood plans in the context of newly acquired commonage. Without such information, the project will be unable to fulfil its objective of identifying "policy options and interventions which will optimise, sustainably, the welfare of range communities. . .". This aspect of the research programme will form an important initiative for the coming year.

Work package 5. Integration and synthesis.

Task a. Generate process-based models. One of the primary challenges facing the Community Rangelands project is to assimilate a broad spectrum of research disciplines into a coherent whole. The development of process based models combining data from rangeland, livestock and socio-economic research is further complicated by historical and political factors, all of which must be taken into account in order to identity drivers in subsistence economies and rangeland ecology. We have made a start with this aspect of the project by developing a vegetation degradation model of the Paulshoek rangelands. We are working with Dr Brian Hahn and Dr David Richardson, both staff members of the Applied Maths department from the University of Cape Town. We have adopted a frame-based approach to our modeling exercise (see Starfield, A.M., Cumming, D.H.M., Taylor, R.D. & Quadling, M.S. 1993. A frame-based paradigm for dynamic ecosystem models. AI Applications 7(2&3), 1-13). It is hoped that the socio-economic data will be incorporated into the model at a later stage.

Task b. Develop long-term data sets relating to climate change. Although no progress has been made with this aspect of the project, contact has been made with climate change researchers within the National Botanical Institute and the University of Cape Town. Opportunities for collaborative research have been explored.

Task c. Develop global change scenarios and assess their implications. This aspect of the project will be explored in more detail during the final year of the project.

Task d. Identify development opportunities and interventions. This forms an on-going part of the project. Members of the project contribute regularly to the deliberations of the Paulshoek Development Forum and assist this local institution wherever possible (e.g. through the adult literacy programme, collection of materials for the development of a local library). A commitment to the tourist campsite, as well as to a few rangeland rehabilitation projects has been made.

Task e. Community feedback. All new researchers working in the Paulshoek village are introduced to the Paulshoek Development Forum committee members prior to their commencing their work. Regular meetings with the PDF are arranged and progress with the project is frequently discussed.

Work package 6. Project coordination and reporting.

Task a. A reliable and regular e-mail and telephonic link has been established between the National Botanical Institute and the Centre for Arid Zone Studies in Bangor, Wales.

4. Events

Meetings

Two South African conferences and two international conferences were attended during the course of the year.

1. 33^th Annual Congress of the Grassland Society of Southern Africa, held at the Cedara Agricultural College, Pietermaritzburg, 26-29 January, 1998. Attended by three members of the Paulshoek research team: Timm Hoffman, Simon Todd and Anastelle Solomon. Two posters were presented:

• Todd, S.W. & Hoffman, M.T. "Determinants of stocking rate in the Leliefontein Communal Reserve, Namaqualand."
• Solomon, A. & Hoffman, M.T. "The use and valuation of fuelwood resources in Paulshoek, Namaqualand."

2. Communal rangelands conference entitled: " Policy-making for the sustainable use of southern African rangelands" held at the University of Fort Hare, Alice, 6-9 July, 1998. Attended by three members of the Paulshoek team: Timm Hoffman, Simon Todd and Ashia Petersen. Two papers were presented:

• Todd, S.W., Seymour, C., Joubert, D.F., & Hoffman, M.T. Communal Rangelands and Biodiversity: Insights from Paulshoek, Namaqualand.
• R.G. Wyn Jones, E.M. Young, M.T. Hoffman, L. Magole, A. Petersen, J. Arntzen, M. Majoro. Global Change and Subsistence Rangelands in Southern Africa: An outline of a European Union funded project.

3. International Conference on "Land Tenure in the Developing World" held at the University of Cape Town, Cape Town, 27-29 January 1998. Attended by Rick Rohde.

4. International Symposium on "Property Rights, Risk and Livestock Development" held at Feldafing, Germany, 27 September to 1 October 1998. Attended by Rick Rohde who presented a paper:

• Rohde R., Cousins B. & Hoffman M.T. Experiments in expanding the commons – comparison from Namibia and South Africa.

Training

Three MSc theses were completed during the course of the year. Their full titles are shown under the publications section below. The studies formed part of the Conservation Biology MSc programme run by the Department of Zoology at the University of Cape Town. The research focused on the impact of communal grazing on plant and animal diversity and composition.

In addition, one PhD thesis, two MSc theses and one BSc (Honours) thesis were initiated during the course of the year. The titles of these studies are:

Hayley Rodkin. Rangeland management, rural livelihoods and development options in Paulshoek, Namaqualand. PhD thesis, University of Cape Town, Cape Town. (Expected submission date: December 2000).

Anastelle Solomon. The use and valuation of natural fuelwood resources in Paulshoek, Namaqualand and the ecological impact of fuelwood collection. MSc thesis, University of Cape Town, Cape Town. (Expected submission date: March 1999).

Ashia Petersen. The phytosociology of Paulshoek, Namaqualand. MSc thesis, Rhodes University, Grahamstown. (Expected submission date: December 2000).

Karen Goldberg. The ecological sustainability of medicinal plant resource use in Paulshoek, Namaqualand and people’s perceptions of the problem. BSc (Hons) thesis, University of Cape Town, Cape Town. (Expected submission date: 26 October, 1998).

Staff on the project also attended a number of training workshops. The most important of these were:

• Anastelle Solomon 24-29 November 1997, Gaborone, Botswana. Southern African Network for Training on the Environment (SANTREN) workshop organized by the Institute of Environmental Studies, University of Zimbabwe. Participants were trained on using the Internet to disseminate information. Participants also started a case study to look at rural communities and how they use resources. This study group met for a second time in Cape Town from 19-21 February 1998;

• Anastelle Solomon & Ashia Petersen both attended a 30 hour undergraduate statistics course held by the Department of Statistics at the University of the Western Cape between February and May 1998. Both passed the course with Ashia Petersen achieving a first class pass.

Finally, a member of the Paulshoek community, Mr Mervin Cloete, has been employed as a field assistant and he has been trained to collect rainfall data and to conduct the monthly stock census interviews with the farmers of Paulshoek.

Exchange visits

Six exchange visits occurred during the period of reporting and are detailed below:

Table 4. Exchange visits as part of the Paulshoek project during the course of 1997/98.

Name	Designation	Date	Purpose of visit
Dr Timm Hoffman & Ms Ashia Petersen	South African project co-ordinator & Researcher	13-17 October 1997	To attend initial project meeting in Gaborone, Botswana
Dr Gareth Wyn Jones & Dr Einir Young	Project Co-ordinators, Centre for Arid Zone Studies	21-26 October 1997	To facilitate project initiation
Dr Ian Robinson	Researcher, Centre for Arid Zone Studies	4-7 March 1998	To initiate record-keeping census
Dr Gareth Wyn Jones	Project Co-ordinator, Centre for Arid Zone Studies	10-12 May 1998	6-monthly visit to assess progress and attend to any problems
Dr Gerard Szejwach	Director: IGBP data management section	16-21 June 1998	To assess applicability of satellite imagery
Dr Peter Grubb	Department of Botany, Cambridge University	8-29 September 1998	Supervisor to Mr Peter Carrick: PhD student at Cambridge University

In addition to the exchange visits listed above, contact has also been made with Dr Karen Esler from the Department of Botany, University of Stellenbosch. Dr Esler is the co-ordinator of another European Commission funded project being undertaken in South Africa. It is entitled: "Restoration of degraded Nama Karoo: the role of conservation islands" (contract number ERBIC18CT970141). One formal meeting has occurred between the two research teams to share insights into karoo ecosystem dynamics. Our second three-hour meeting is scheduled for 6 October 1998.

5. Publications

A total of 12 publications have either been submitted or published since the project was initiated in October 1997. These include the following peer-reviewed articles, theses, conference proceedings, popular articles and unpublished reports.

1. Allsopp, N. (In press). Effects of grazing and cultivation on soil patterns and processes in Namaqualand. Plant Ecology.




2. Carrick, P. 1998. Grazing and competition mediated community dynamics in the central succulent Karoo, South Africa. Unpublished first year report, Department of Botany, Cambridge University, Cambridge. 24 pp.




3. Joubert, D.F. 1998. Small mammal and bird community structure in commercial and communal rangelands in a semi-arid shrubland in Namaqualand, South Africa. Unpublished MSc thesis, University of Cape Town, Cape Town. 39 pp.




4. Moinde, N.N. 1998. The effects of Galenia africana on dominant perennial plant species in Namaqualand, South Africa. Unpublished MSc thesis, University of Cape Town, Cape Town. 31 pp.




5. National Botanical Institute 1998. Global change and subsistence rangelands in southern Africa: Paulshoek, Namaqualand: A preliminary report and literature review. Unpublished progress report, National Botanical Institute, Cape Town. February 1998. 25 pp.




6. R.G. Wyn Jones, E.M. Young, M.T. Hoffman, L. Magole, A. Petersen, J. Arntzen, M. Majoro. Global Change and Subsistence Rangelands in Southern Africa: An outline of a European Union funded project. Proceedings of conference "Policy-making for the sustainable use of southern African communal rangelands" held at the University of Fort Hare, 6-9 July 1998.




7. Rohde, R., Cousins, B. & Hoffman, M.T. Experiments in expanding the commons – Comparisons from Namibia and South Africa. Proceedings of International Symposium on Property Rights, Risk and Livestock Development held at Feldafing, Germany, 27 September to 1 October 1998.




8. Seymour, C. 1998. Different grazing intensities in arid rangelands: effects on invertebrates on a communal farm in the succulent karoo, South Africa. Unpublished MSc thesis, University of Cape Town, Cape Town. 36 pp.




9. Todd, S.W. & Hoffman, M.T. (In press). A fence-line contrast reveals effects of heavy grazing on plant diversity and community composition in Namaqualand, South Africa. Plant Ecology.




10. Todd, S.W. & Hoffman, M.T. 1998. Communal rangelands in semi-arid South Africa. Veld & Flora 84(3): 82. September 1998.




11. Todd, S.W. & Hoffman, M.T. 1998. Fence in and nowhere to go. Veld & Flora 84(3): 84-85. September 1998.




12. Todd, S.W., Seymour, C., Joubert, D.F., & Hoffman, M.T. Communal Rangelands and Biodiversity: Insights from Paulshoek, Namaqualand. Proceedings of conference "Policy-making for the sustainable use of southern African communal rangelands" held at the University of Fort Hare, 6-9 July 1998.

Besides the publications listed above, the Paulshoek study also features prominently in a 30 minute video entitled "Season of hope" produced by Lawrence Dworkin. This video was commissioned by South Africa’s National Action Programme to Combat Desertification (NAPCD) and was shown at the national launch of the NAPCD on 17 June 1998, in Pretoria. It will be shown on national television in the coming months.

6. Constraints

Finding a suitable research assistant to work on the socio-economic aspects of the project proved to be more difficult than originally expected. Advertisements and email bulletins were sent to all relevant institutions and academic departments in the Cape Town area requesting applications for a two year research fellowship, sponsored by PLAAS and geared towards obtaining a Masters degree in a social science discipline through the Paulshoek project. Approximately twelve applications were received, only two of which were short-listed and interviewed. The post was filled by Hayley Rodkin, who was at that time finishing her MSc in Environmental Science, based on research she has carried out into community participation and development processes in the Namaqualand area. It is envisaged that her involvement with the Paulshoek project will lead towards the completion of her PhD. Her contract with the Paulshoek team, through PLAAS, commenced on August 19, 1998 and will be full time for two years from this date. It is hoped that the appointment of Ms Rodkin will lead to considerable progress with the socio-economic research programme.

Namaqualand is experiencing one of the worst droughts for several decades. Although disastrous for the farmers of the areas, project participants will be using the opportunity created by the 1 in 30 year event.

7. Schedule 1998-1999

The schedule for 1998-1999 as it relates to the Work Packages and Associated Tasks is provided in Appendix 1. The main focus of the coming year will be on initiating the socio-economic aspects of the project and bringing it in line with the ecological work. The emphasis of the ecological work for the period 1998-1999 will focus on the following key areas:

• Development of a vegetation map of Paulshoek;

• Investigation of biomass and forage production and the integration of these data with the dynamic vegetation model for the area;

• Investigation of the competitive interactions between the dominant palatable shrubs (e.g. Ruschia robusta) and the toxic, indigenous, invasive shrub Galenia africana. The nutrient quality and responses to grazing of a range of palatable and non-palatable shrubs will also be investigated;

• Completion of fuelwood resource and medicinal plant studies;

• Continuation of monthly data collection initiatives (e.g. rainfall totals at three stations, livestock census record keeping system transhumance herding patterns within 30 herds, crop production census);

• Continuation of soil fertility studies;
• Initiation of long-term environmental history studies.

The socio-economic component to the study will attend to the following over the coming year:

• Introduction and supervision of Hayley Rodkin into the Paulshoek Project; defining the PhD focus; background research, and the analysis of the existing socio-economic data base. She will become familiar with the extensive background literature on Paulshoek, the Namaqualand communal areas generally, the land reform programme and theoretical issues surrounding land tenure and natural resource management. The researcher will begin fieldwork in Paulshoek and as far as possible meet the main players in land reform and rural development (village forum members, agricultural extension officers, local councillors, SPP personnel etc)

• R. Rohde and H. Rodkin will begin ethnographic research in Paulshoek. A veld monitoring training programme will be designed. Research into environmental history and the documentation of the local land reform process will be initiated by R. Rohde. By the end of 1998 Ms. Rodkin will have established a base in the village of Paulshoek and will a tightly focused village and stockpost household survey, a quarterly newsletter, a photography project, a local oral history project and ongoing involvement in community development projects. A written schedule and methodology will be completed during the coming year

• Specific products envisaged for the coming year include the collation and preparation of a Rural Appraisal Report, a Literature Review of Rangeland Management Policy and a Socio-economic Background Report. In addition, an exhibition resulting from the photography project will be displayed in Cape Town during the International Conference on Photography to be held in Cape Town during July 1999 and a paper will be presented on the use of photography in community development, specifically in relation to the photography project in Paulshoek.

T Hoffman

Appendix 1. Schedule of work activities and staff responsibilities for the Paulshoek study. Abbreviations for staff names are: AP = Ashia Petersen, AS = Anastelle Solomon, BC = Ben Cousins, HR = Hayley Rodkin, IR = Ian Robinson, KG = Karen Goldberg, MC = Mervin Cloete, NA = Nicky Allsopp, PC = Peter Carrick, RR = Rick Rohde, ST = Simon Todd; TH = Timm Hoffman, CV = Coleen Vogel.

Work Package and Task	Activity or product	Responsibility	Completion date
Work Package 1
Task a-c	Community participation and training	All	4th 2000
Work Package 2
Task a	Water quality, availability	TH, MC	4th 1999
Task b	Geology map	TH, ST	Completed
	Soil fertility and erosion studies	NA, AP	4th 1999
Task c	Vegetation map	AP	4th 1999
	Map of arable lands	TH	Completed
Task d	Estimates of biomass production	PC, TH, ST	4th 1999
	Arable land production	TH, MC	4th 1999
	Diet selection and available browse	PC	4th 1999
Task e	Fence-line contrast studies	ST	1st 1999
	Role of drought	ST, TH, MC, RR	4th 1999
Task f	Firewood harvesting and impacts	AS	1st 1999
	Medicinal plants	KG	4th 1998
	Tourist camp site	AP, TH, AS	4th 2000
Task g	Rainfall data	MC, PC, TH	4th 1999
Work Package 3
Task a	Characterisation of social and institutional structures	HR, RR	4th 1999
Task b	Land tenure and transhumance patterns	RR, MC, TH	4th 2000
Task c	Livestock production system	MC, TH, RR, IR	4th 2000
Task d	The source of rural livelihoods	HR, RR, AS	4th 1999
Task e	Impact of rangeland state and variability on livelihoods	HR, RR, TH, ST	4th 1999
Task f	Long term data sets	CV, RR, TH	4th 1999
Work Package 4
Task a	Land use impacts	TH, ST, PC, AP, AS, NA, RR	4th 1999
Task b	Policy implications	RR, HR	4th 1999
Task c	Impact of government intervention	RR, BC, HR	4th 1999
Work Package 5
Task a	Process-based models	All	4th 1999
Task b	Climate change impacts	TH	4th 1999
Task c	Global change impacts	TH, RR, ST	4th 1999
Task d	Development opportunities	All	4th 2000
Task e	Community feedback	All	4th 2000
Work Package 6
Task a-c	Project co-ordination and reporting	All	4th 2000

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF LESOTHO

Team:

Dr Moeketsi Majoro	Country Coordinator, Environmental Economist
Dr None Mokitimi	Agricultural/Livestock Specialist
Dr Makoala Marake	Soil Scientist
Dr Chaba Mokuku	Ecologist

Executive Summary

Due to inadequate funding, the Lesotho team had to significantly modify their original technical proposal, firstly, to be able to salvage a meaningful role in the regional research project on global change and subsistence rangelands and, secondly, to increase the probability of securing supplementary funding. Unlike the original proposal, which aimed at national baseline studies, the current proposal identified a carefully selected site as the study area.

Five milestones were identified for the first year of study. With the limited funding, the Lesotho component aimed at (1) site identification, (2) tentatively initiating community consultations, (3) socio-economic surveys, and (4) desk studies. More importantly, the team had to (5) seek and secure additional funding. The study site has been identified, consultations with the study communities have begun, preparations for the socio-economic survey have begun, desk analyses of policy and institutional issues has begun, and additional funds have been secured. The Lesotho study is thus in a position to move along with other regional studies, albeit later than envisaged.

The team has hosted two important visits from our European counterparts with the following aims:

• Reconnaissance to facilitate further planning of hydrological analysis (Juan Pablo Martinez Rica)
• Assessment of feasibility of self-recording schemes (Ian Robinson)
• Monitoring of progress and back-stopping in securing supplementary funding (Gareth Wyn Jones).

Funding constraints did significantly limit the major and meaningful components of the study. However these have now been largely removed. Most of the fieldwork, which was suspended on account of insufficient funding, is now to be initiated with parallel activities taking place throughout the next research year. It is hoped that by the end of the second year of the study the Lesotho team will be roughly on a par with the other regional teams in terms of milestones reached.

1. Introduction

The Lesotho team began with an ambitious proposal to carry out socio-economic and biophysical baseline studies at national level. Our proposed budget, which included purchases of automobiles, was inevitably high, inordinately boosting the overall budget presented to the European Commission. Of the circa 1,200 k ECU requested for the overall project, the EC committed only about 706 k ECU. Consequently, all technical proposals had to be modified to fit within the available resources. Needless to say, Lesotho’s proposed budget, which included durable equipment, became the focus for the deepest cuts with only about 70.1 k ECU finally allocated to Lesotho.

With such severe cuts, the Lesotho research team then modified its proposal to concentrate on a single research site comprising two distinct rangeland management regimes. However, even with this strategy, committed resources would not be adequate, leaving Lesotho with a severely proscribed role in the regional research programme. The main responsibilities that remained in the three-year period of the study were:

• analysis of all relevant existing research results, and government and other data sets
• analysis of policy issues in Lesotho.

The allocated resources would not support some of the main components of the study such as:

• biophysical data collection and data analysis
• socio-economic data collection and analysis
• analysis of different land use practices on rangeland resources
• influences of policy and institutions on rangeland resources
• development of long-term data sets on land use and demographics
• development of models linking global changes to rangeland state and range productivity.

With these major and critical components of the study excluded, the role of the Lesotho study in the regional study and its national significance were bound to be limited. In the light of this, it was agreed that additional efforts would be made to secure additional funding. Thus, in addition to the specified assignments for the Lesotho team, time was allocated for seeking supplementary funding with the assistance of the Overall Project Coordinator, Professor Gareth Wyn Jones. It was hoped that such additional funds would have been secured by the end of the first year of the project in order to allow the Lesotho team to implement fully its programme without falling too far behind the other regional teams.

The following sections contain information on milestones, achievements, and proposed goals for the coming research year. Section 3 presents milestones and attained progress in achieving set goals. Section 4 presents a list of events during the research year. Section 5 presents highlights of problems encountered. Finally, section 6 presents the proposed schedule of activities for the next research year.

2. Milestones

Site Identification

Following failure to secure the full requested budgetary support, a new approach focusing on a single research site was adopted. A site known as the Pelaneng/Bokong Range Management Area (RMA) was selected during various visits between October 1997 and January 1998. The site was selected such that it would encompass grazing areas managed under the traditional chief-driven system and the innovative community-driven RMA system. The traditional grazing area would then function as a control site for evaluating the efficacy of policy responses to rangeland degradation. The RMA would simultaneously act as a control for evaluating degradation capacity of the traditional management system.

Task a in Work Package 1: completed.

Community Consultations

Consultations with the concerned communities have been initiated but have not been completed. Among those consulted are the local authorities consisting of the Chief and her assistants and the RMA authorities, and managerial and technical staff. We have held lengthy interviews with informants and technical staff and have also collected some background data related to the management and characteristics of the RMA.

Task b of Work Package 1: in progress.

The Socio-economic Survey

We have initiated the socio-economic survey by preparing the relevant questions and the initiating the preparation of the socio-economic questionnaire. Specific work plans for the implementation of the socio-economic survey are being prepared.

Tasks a-d of Work Package 3 have been initiated.

Desk Analysis of Management and Policy Issues Initiated

Collection of relevant policy literature covering three periods, pre-independence, post-independence but up 1980, and 1980s to present has been initiated. A policy workshop with senior ministerial staff has been adopted as part of the proposed policy and institutional analysis and will be held in December 1998.

Tasks a-c of Work Package 4 have been initiated.

3. Seeking Supplementary Funds

Following the project initiation workshop, Professor Wyn Jones paid a visit to assist the team with the preparation of a specific technical and financial proposal to seek additional funds. A proposal was prepared and submitted to the British Development Office in Pretoria, who subsequently responded negatively. Later follow ups and further discussions with the British High Commissioner in Lesotho produced unexpected but extremely good news in the form of a conditional commitment for funding provided the Lesotho team secured an atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AA) themselves. An application to the International Foundation for Science was prepared. In the meantime, the National University of Lesotho secured a grant from the World Bank for supporting the procurement of scientific equipment including the needed AA. We interpreted this to mean that the pre-condition put forth by the British Commissioner had been met and we approached him once again. He agreed and we have now secured a commitment for the supplementary funds.

We have also applied for supplementary funds from the National University of Lesotho and are hoping to receive this national contribution which is supported by the Vice-Chancellor. This grant will facilitate professional exchange visits to the other regional centres in the next research year.

This was a supplemental task. Completed.

4. List of Events

We have hosted several visits from our European counterparts with helpful inputs into the planning of the study.

Livestock Recording (Ian Robinson)

Dr Ian Robinson of the Centre of Arid Zone Studies paid a visit to the region and visited Lesotho in March 1998. The purpose of his mission was to introduce to the Lesotho research team a self-motivating livestock record-keeping system. Jointly, with the research team he visited some of the farmers in the RMA. His message was well received by both the researchers and the few farmers seen because of its innovative approach to record-keeping. It was recognised, however, that the system is demanding on the part of the farmers and that clear incentives are required before farmers can studiously keep records. The researchers committed themselves to trying the system with a few farmers at the beginning. While the recording system appeared feasible, the team agreed to be seized with the logistical and financial aspects of its implementation later. Dr Robinson has prepared a separate report on this.

Monitoring (Gareth Wyn Jones)

We also hosted a monitoring visit by the Principal Coordinator, Professor Gareth Wyn Jones. His main assignment was to monitor progress and to assist us further with fund-raising. Meetings with the British High Commissioner, which were later to become fruitful, were organised. A field visit, which facilitated further discussions with RMA technical staff was also organised. Pertinent information regarding the organisational profile, membership, livestock populations, rangeland state and change over time was gleaned from these key informant interviews.

Site Introductory Visit (Juan Pablo Martinez Rica, Gareth Wyn Jones, Einir Young)

In October 1997, the Lesotho team also hosted Professor Gareth Wyn Jones, Dr Einir Young, and Professor Juan Pablo Martinez Rica. Professor Martinez Rica is especially assigned to work closely with the Lesotho team on the appraisal of existing biophysical data and the design of protocol for data acquisition and analysis on water resources and hydrology. A visit to the then provisionally proposed site was organised with the purpose of incorporating Professor Martinez Rica’s plans into the study.

5. Constraints in Year 1 of Study

The main constraint faced by the Lesotho team was the shortage of funding for supporting all the main components of the study. This shortage significantly limited the Lesotho study to an analysis of literature and appraisal policy and relevant institutions in the period earmarked for the study. This constraint has now been removed and it is expected that the Lesotho component will now be fully implemented and avoid falling far behind the other regional components.

The constraint meant that the biological resource mapping could not be completed as had been proposed. The task is prioritised for the next research year.

6. Schedule for Next Research Year

The schedule in Table 1 below is proposed for the next period from October 1998 to September 1999. Activities will run concurrently employing different members of the team. Additional professional personnel are to be recruited to assist in the implementation of the Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and to include the additional disciplines of sociology and the extension services. These personnel have already been identified.

Table 1: Schedule for 1998/1999

Activity	Personnel	Timing
Primary Mapping of Biophysical Resources	MKM, CM	October-December 1998
Installation of Meteorological Stations	MR, MKM, CM, NM, MJR	October 1998
Relevant Policy Analysis	ALL	October-December 1998
Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)	ALL & Sociologists & Extension workers	November 1998
Synthesis of and Analysis of PRA results	ALL & Sociologists & Extension workers	December 1998-January 1999
Implementation of Socio-economic and Rangeland Use Survey	NM,MJR	October-December 1998
Analysis of Socio-economic Survey Results	NM,MJR	January 1998-Febraury 1999
Report of Socio-economic Study	NM,MJR	April 1999
Water and Hydrology Surveys	To seek assistance locally & regionally, CM, MKM	September-December 1998
Collection and Interpretation of Climatic Data	CM, MKM, MR	September 1998--February 1999
Soil Surveys	MKM,MR	September 1998--February 1999
Ecological Surveys, (biomass productivity, species identification)	CM,MR	September 1998--February 1999
Laboratory Work and Analysis	CM, MKM,MR	September 1998--February 1999
Comparative Analysis of Biophysical Variables Across Different Management Systems	CM, MKM	June-August 1999

Abbreviations used in the above table:

MR - Martinez Rica
MKM - Makoala Marake
NM - None Mokitimi
CM - Chaba Mokuku
MJR - Moeketsi Majoro
ALL - All Lesotho Researchers on the project

Moeketsi Majoro

NORWEGIAN INSTITUTE FOR NATURE RESEARCH

Dr Christina Skarpe, Vegetation Ecologist

Executive Summary

The work on woody vegetation and browse availability and utilisation has included the use of existing data for a contribution to the site baseline study as well as data collection in the field regarding the dry season situation at different distances from the villages.

1. Introduction

The collection and analysis of biophysical data in the Matsheng area includes:

1. a site description based on old and more recent existing data
2. a study of water sources and hydrology
3. a study of soil fertility
4. a description of vegetation
5. assessment of availability and utilisation of grazing and browse resources
6. assessment of the availability and utilisation of other animal and plant rangeland products.

The studies have been planned in and for close cooperation between researchers from UB and myself, largely intending to use the same plots or sampling sites. While researchers from UB have taken the main responsibility for work on water, soil, field layer vegetation and grazing, my main concern is the woody vegetation and browsing.

In most African subsistence rangelands, livestock and wild large herbivores contribute a very important proportion of the commodities utilised. Depending on feeding habits, most African ungulates can be classified as bulk-roughage feeders (grazers; feeding on grasses and graminoids), concentrate-selectors (browsers; feeding on woody plants and forbs) and mixed feeders preferring either grass or browse (Hofman & Stewart 1972). Most species are mixed feeders, e.g., cattle are primarily grazers but in dry ranges they browse when and where grazing is scarce. Also sheep are preferential grazers, while goats are mixed feeders preferring browse. Among wild species in the Kalahari, e. g., wildebeest is a grazer, greater kudu a browser and hartebeest and springbok are mixed feeders.

Commercial ranching in southern Africa is mainly concerned with cattle and, to some extent, sheep. Consequently, range research has been directed to grass production and to understanding the grass-grazer system, while less interest has been paid to the browse-browser interactions (Bergstrom, 1982). Recently, there has been a trend to diversify the range production, e. g., by combining cattle with browsing smallstock or game. It has also become clear that browse from trees and shrubs plays a very important role in most traditional, subsistence rangelands in southern Africa. These rangelands are often heavily grazed, and, during the dry season, when and where grazing is scarce, even preferential grazers, like cattle and sheep, depend on browse for extended periods, and goats browse all the year. In the Kalahari, wild animals (and plants) from the rangelands contribute substantially to the subsistence of the poorest fraction of the population, while goats and cattle are important for most of the people.

The intention for the first year of the project has been to:

• contribute to the base line description of the site
• get an improved background knowledge on the attitude of different groups of villagers to rangeland products and conditions
• start the specific studies on woody vegetation and browse availability and utilisation.

2. List of Milestones

My specific aims for the first year were:

1. to contribute to the baseline site description (Task 0).

   This has been completed. Old travellers’ accounts, published and unpublished reports, research papers and my own experience from the area were used to contribute primarily to vegetation and large herbivore data but also to comment on soil and water conditions.

2. to get an improved background knowledge on the attitude of different groups of villagers to rangeland products and conditions (Task 2 c & d)

   This has been achieved to a small extent by direct interaction with villagers and, primarily, from the UB researchers on social sciences and economy, who generously let me take part in the preliminary surveys as part of their field work in the area.

3. to start the specific studies on woody vegetation and browse availability and utilisation (Task 2 c & d)

It was decided to start with the dry season conditions, which are generally believed to be the most critical for livestock and game in the area. This task is still ongoing. It was initiated in July, involving two Swedish students and myself. The work was planned as a close cooperation with researches and students from UB and the Ministry of Agriculture, largely working together in the same plots. However, the UB personnel terminated their field work after a few weeks, and it was decided that the Swedish students, in addition to their work with woody vegetation and browsers, should continue a simple sampling of soil and herbaceous vegetation. The study uses 40 transects of 5 x 100 m, 10 at each of 4 distances from village centres. A number of variables are recorded for all trees and shrubs in the transects. The field work needs approximately 3 months for completion and will therefore finish at the beginning of October, 1998. Progress up to now is good.

3. Events, Meetings & Publications

I took part in the initial meeting for the project in Gaborone.

I participated in the IGBP meeting at the University of Botswana on Savannahs and Global Change, 10-13 June 1998, and contributed to a paper for the Proceedings of the IGBP meeting.

From 4 - 24 July 1998, I was in Botswana discussing with researchers at UB and, mainly, starting up the field sampling together with students.

From 10 July to approximately 5 October, 1998, two students are sampling woody vegetation, browse, etc, in the study area.

4. Problems

Up to now, there have been no fundamental problems.

5. Schedule for Next Year

Re-sampling of my vegetation plots from 1979-1983 in the area (January or February 1999).

Sampling of vegetation at pans, which are of key importance for wild and domestic ungulates, at different distances from the villages (January or February 1999).

Start wet-season browse analysis, hopefully together with Botswanan and European students (end of 1999).

Together with researchers from the Ministry of Agriculture and UB, work on a scientific paper based on the proceedings report from the IGBP meeting (mid 1999).

Work on data on dry-season browsing for student report (mid 1999) and scientific paper (after 1999).

Work on data and submitting of scientific paper on vegetation plots from 1999 compared to 1979/83 (end of 1999).

Work on data for scientific paper on pan vegetation (to be submitted after 1999).

Christina Skarpe

PYRENEAN INSTITUTE OF ECOLOGY

Dr Juan Pablo Martinez Rica, Ecologist

Executive Summary

During this year the Spanish team has been working on the gathering of meteorological data for the Lesotho study area, on the building of automatic meteorological and hydrological stations to be installed in that area, and on the building of soil loss models in the Lesotho mountain catchments.

• We have obtained the meteorological data available from the University of Lesotho. Most of these data deal only with rainfall, as the number of complete weather stations in Lesotho is very few but we have at least a starting point.

• Secondly, we have already finished the building of stations, which are now being calibrated. Our purpose is to send them to Lesotho in the next few weeks, and to build them at the study site by the end of October, at the beginning of the rainy season.

For the first point, the efforts yielded only preliminary results. After a first crude attempt at a general model we installed the software and are now trying to develop a more formal and complete model. We plan to improve it during a visit in September 1998 to Dr Andrew Friend at the University of Edinburgh.

1. Introduction

A plan of work had been outlined in the early project documentation in which the Pyrenean Institute of Ecology would have a special role in the ecological and hydrological tasks at the site in the Lesotho Highlands. This would maximise the special skills of the Institute. Unfortunately, as the work in Lesotho was most affected by the cuts in project funding, these plans had to be altered.

Consequently, new plans were agreed at the workshop held at Gaborone in October 97, and are recorded in the Proceedings. These included the gathering of climatic, hydrologic and soil data, estimation of soil losses and help in the building of models of the whole rangeland system. Most of the effort was to be directed to Lesotho study sites but optional help might be supplied to other sites as well. Latest Work plans do not point to the recording of climatic data in Lesotho, only to supply some ecological background to the work there. Help with climatic data might be given, however, to the Namaqualand site. We may help with the selection of automatic weather stations, with recording data, and with getting data on soil erosion by water in Lesotho and by wind in Botswana.

2. Gathering of data

A large part of the time spent on the project has been devoted to gathering climatic data for Lesotho, especially for the neighbourhood of the study site. Climatic stations are scarce in the region, although some have been built within the framework of the Lesotho Highlands Water Project. Direct data series of temperature and rainfall come from a few stations in the Malibamatso watershed. Other data must be extrapolated from the excellent Agroclimatological Atlas of South Africa by R. Schulze, which covers the Lesotho and South Africa sites but not that in Botswana.

We now have a series of temperature and rainfall data of at least 30 years reflecting the general trends of climate in Lesotho. The data required to derive erosion estimates, however, are not these general ones, but climatic records on the exact location of the research site. In such a rugged country as Lesotho, rainfall and temperature may change sharply over short distances. While the ‘Atlas database’ supplies data on a 1 sq km grid, the published maps do not have a scale less than 5 x 5 km. Moreover, these maps show the actual distribution of values, and not trends. Therefore some modelling work should be done to get the suitable data. This will be the main job for the next months.

3. List of milestones to be achieved

The following milestones were attempted:

1. A report on the climatic data to be recorded at the three sites (Task 2g)
2. An ecological description of the Lesotho site, after this has been selected (Task 2c)
3. An operating meteorological station to be installed at the Lesotho site or, if this site is not available, at one of the remaining sites (Task 2g)
4. An operating hydrological gauge to supplement the meteorological data (Task 2g)
5. A first model, however crude, of the processes at the Lesotho site (Task 5a/b)
6. Any other publication or report stemming from the data. (Dissemination activities).

Of these milestones, the achievements reached are as follows:

1. Climatic data to be recorded were discussed at the Gaborone meeting in October 1997. The list is rather comprehensive, and probably not all the data will be gathered but that was a minimum allowing some modelling to be done. The data listed were as follows:

   Daily mean, maxima and minima air temperatures (from these weekly, monthly and yearly equivalents would be obtained)
   Daily mean, maxima and minima soil temperatures.
   Daily rainfall, recording the rainiest 30 min period of every storm
   Daily snowfall
   Snow depth every day when snow is present
   Wind speed every 15 min.
   Fastest blow of wind every day
   Ultraviolet, visible and infra-red amount of radiation every day
   Daily evaporation
   Sunshine hours.

   These data are to be supplemented with hydrologic data. On the selected river the next variables will be recorded:

   Amount of flow every hour
   Turbidity of water daily
   Amount of suspended solids daily
   pH of water
   BOD
   Hardness of water
   Temperature of water.

   Some soil data were also considered:

   Type of soil
   Depth of soil
   Humidity of soil
   Organic matter
   Granulometry
   N/P
   Amount of free bases
   Percentage of plant cover
   Stoniness.

   While all these variables and several others are necessary to understand the ecological system of the study sites, it is clear that not all the variables can be recorded. This is due mainly to the under-funding of the project. However, the first milestone, the report on the needed variables, is nearing completion.

2. The ecological description of the study site in Lesotho must await the next planned visit to that country. It was not feasible during the first trip as the site had not then been selected. The visit is planned for October, 1998. The report on the study site will include chapters on the geology and lithology, the climate, the soil, the flora and vegetation, the fauna, the human settlements, the use of land, and a general description of the main ecologic processes at the site. The report will be completed in January, 1999 and will encompass Tasks 2 b-d.

3. The third milestone has been acquiring automatic recording stations to measure the planned variables. These devices were not available under the restricted budget of the project and, therefore, the supplementary money has been sought and received from the Spanish Research Council and the Pyrenean Institute of Ecology. Given the large number of climatic, hydrologic and soil variables to be measured, no existing station was able to do the work. Therefore it has been necessary to build a station de novo. This has, in turn, been very expensive, and some variables (mainly soil variables) have been left out, at least until we have new possibilities of support.

The station was built at the Pyrenean Institute of Ecology. The building phase has just finished, and now the calibration and monitoring phase begins. We hope that everything will be finished in time to take the station to Lesotho during the next planned trip, and to build it there. At this moment, the meteorological stations works well but the hydrological station requires further work. Finally, stations will record the following variables:

Temperature
Precipitation
Wind (direction and speed)
Radiation (Visible, UV and infrared)
Snow
Evaporation
Flow of water
Transparency of water
Amount of suspended solids
pH of water
Calcium contents of water.

All these variables will be recorded at least daily, usually every hour, every half an hour or even every minute. From these records it is easy to obtain many derived variables as follows:

Mean daily, weekly, monthly and annual temperatures
Mean of daily, weekly, monthly and annual minimum temperatures
Mean of daily, weekly, monthly and annual maximum temperatures
Absolute daily, weekly, monthly and annual minimum temperatures
Absolute daily, weekly, monthly and annual maximum temperatures
Day of first frost, day of last frost, length of frosting time
Day of first snowfall, day of last snowfall
Mean weekly and monthly precipitation
Total weekly, monthly and annual precipitation
Maximum precipitation in half an hour, an hour and a day
Number of stormy days
Amount of water in storms
Erosivity of rain
Length of time with snow covering the soil
Mean daily, weekly, monthly and annual depth of snow
Mean daily, weekly, monthly and annual sun radiation
Amount of sunshine hours
Mean daily, weekly, monthly and annual cloudiness
Mean daily, weekly, monthly and annual absolute air humidity
Mean daily, weekly, monthly and annual relative humidity
Daily real evapotranspiration
Daily potential evapotranspiration
Daily water stress
Mean daily, weekly, monthly and annual speed of wind
Time, speed and direction of the strongest wind blow every day
Daily distribution of the direction of winds.

Together with the variables recorded at the hydrological station, the data will be the basis of the watershed model for the study site. We should be able to map the erodibility of soils and the erosivity of rain, the real loss of soil, the amount of runoff at every storm, the infiltrated water, etc.

4. The fourth milestone, the building and operation of a hydrological station has already been commented on; the operation of this station lies slightly behind that of the climatic one.

5. The fifth milestone is the construction of a first model of the study watershed in Lesotho. Until now, because of the lack of data, this model has been built only from very rough guesses. In spite of that, it has been enough to evaluate the stability of the system. It seems to be a system very sensitive to perturbations, which might be worsened by the putative climate change, depending on its effects in the Lesotho Highlands. Even without any change, the system seems to be very close to instability, showing a sharp trend towards the loss of soil. Until now the modelling task has been undertaken without the help of computer packages. We are now starting to use some of these packages and to compare our model with other grassland models available in the literature. Our approach is to build a combination model, made by using general modelling languages, such as STELLA with Geographic Information Systems, such as ARC-INFO. The first step in this approach has been the preparation of a Digital Model of Terrain for the whole country. This will allow rough general models, as the scale is only 1:250000 but if this is satisfactory we shall try a more detailed model of the study area to scale.

6. The results are still awaited or are too preliminary to allow any publication. Perhaps a paper might be prepared to present at the next rangeland congress in Australia.

4. List of events related to the project

To date, there have been few events involving the Pyrenean Institute of Ecology. After the meeting at Gaborone and the first visit to the study area in Lesotho, contacts were continued with the leading team in the project. Communication with the Lesotho team also continued but has been much less frequent than expected. Other partners in the project, coming from Botswana (Arntzen and Chanda) were contacted at the Global Change Meeting in Barcelona, where an introduction to the project was presented. Regular meetings were held among the members of the Pyrenean Institute team to discuss the issues related to the project. The next project year will be the key year for fully developing all the tasks.

5. Problems worth a mention

The main problems experienced have been those of communication with partners. Distance and infrastructural problems combine to make it rather difficult to keep an open link with the National University of Lesotho, where the key partners of the team work. Even with the leading team in the U.K., exchange of ideas has been difficult. Ordinary mail is too slow, phone and fax do not always reach the receiver, and e-mail does not always work. As a good deal of the project depends on the steps agreed by the different partners, there are some drawbacks in the implementation of the project.

The use of automatic recording devices in Lesotho is an example of a difficult endeavour. It is necessary to supplement the contribution of the Spanish team by local resources. Thus, the National University of Lesotho should provide some staff to download records every month or so, to care for the stations, and to minimise risks to the equipment. Moreover, they should help by providing bulky items, which are not expensive but cannot be easily carried there from Europe (evaporation pan, stations masts, steel rope, some batteries) as well as a laptop computer to download data. These problems are far from being solved but the recording cannot begin until a solution is available.

These and other general problems should be discussed among partners. Plans for the discussions are briefly commented on below.

6. Schedule for the next year

There are some plans for the next year involving only our team. These are, first, to finish the building and calibration of climatic and hydrologic stations, which could be completed by 10-15 September, 1998. Then it is necessary to settle all the problems related with the transport, building, risks and operation of the stations at the Lesotho site, or if these problems cannot be solved, to consider the installation of the devices at another site or in another country.

If everything goes well, a field trip to Lesotho is planned for October, 1998. During that trip we shall proceed with the installation of stations, the calibration in real conditions and the training of the staff to download the data. In addition, we shall contact field biologists there, or in South Africa, to start the preparation of the ecological report on the study area. Finally, a very specific issue will be addressed during the trip: the situation of the spongy mires at the top of the Maloti Mountains. It is well known that these mires form a very peculiar and isolated habitat, the only afro-alpine wetlands south of the Kilimanjaro, and separated from that mountain by about 3,000 km. The mires serve as a habitat for unique, indigenous amphibian species. Given the decrease of amphibian populations all over the world, the high value of local endemics, the commitment of the Kingdom of Lesotho to preserve local biodiversity resources, and the risks suffered by mountain-tops in the country (because of overgrazing, water supplies to lowlands, erosion and perhaps climate change) a special effort should be undertaken to monitor the status of the amphibian populations and to suggest protective measures. This issue is very specific and perhaps will not be addressed within the framework of the project but the trip to Lesotho would be the right occasion to discuss this point.

Moreover, the modelling task needs the help of the team, especially trained in that area, from the Edinburgh University. A stay of several days with this team should be planned to prepare and refine the existing model. Moreover this stay might serve to discuss other issues with the leading team in Bangor, and to improve the development of the project.

Dr Juan Pablo Martinez Rica

UNIVERSITY OF BOTSWANA

Team:

Dr Jaap W Arntzen	Country Coordinator/Environmental Ecologist
Dr Raban Chanda	Human Geographer
Dr Happy Fidzani	Economist
Dr Lapologang Magole	Development Planner
Dr Otlogetswe Totolo	Soil Scientist
Dr Moffat P Setshogo	Botanist
Dr Gubungano Tacheba	Agriculturalist

1. Introduction

The Botswana fieldwork activities are concentrated in the Matsheng villages in southwestern Botswana. Matsheng is the Tswana word for pans, which may hold water during the rainy season. The area is part of the sandveld with low and unreliable rainfall and infertile soils, and where droughts occur frequently. The area is remote, approximately 550 km west of the capital, Gaborone, and is amongst the poorest in the country. It has a population density of less than one person/km². Gemsbok National Park is to the southwest of the study area. People meet their needs through a combination of livestock, wildlife, crops and veld products. In addition, employment elsewhere is of critical importance to the local population.

The following changes in the recent past have had major impacts on the ecology and socio-economic conditions in this area:

• Expansion of livestock through borehole drilling
• Increased land degradation
• Decline in wildlife numbers
• Increase in commercial harvesting of veld products such as the grapple plant (sengaparile)
• Growing interest in community-based wildlife management such as in Zutshwa.

The Trans-Kalahari highway, opening up this area to virtually all citizens of Botswana, the Government of Botswana’s 1990 Agricultural Policy and wildlife policies are all likely to have a major impact on the region in future.

The main tasks for the year were to synthesise available knowledge of the region and to initiate a series of ecological and socio-economic studies at the Matsheng villages. The project has been introduced to the local community and traditional authorities in a Kgotla meeting and in discussions with the District Council.

2. Milestones

The research team has made progress during the course of the year. The achievements are shown below in relation to the Work Packages and Associated Tasks as set out in the initial project proposal.

Task 0

As agreed at the workshop, during the period November up to February, 1998, the team worked on a literature review. The purpose was to update team members with previous research findings for the study area and to help identify the field work needs for this project. The resulting report would also help partner institutions to acquaint themselves with the Botswana study area.

Work package 1 Project initiation and community participation

In February, a familiarisation and introduction trip to the Kgalagadi North took place. The research project was introduced to the local community and traditional authorities in a Kgotla meeting. In addition, discussions took place with the District Officer and the District Council. The project was well received as the region feels somewhat neglected in terms of research (due to the large distance from Gaborone) and it has pressing natural resource problems, in particular the livestock-wildlife debate.

Task a. Study site identification. Completed.

Task b. Survey of community attitudes. Initiated but forms part of ongoing community liaison work.

Task c. Community participation and training. Initiated but forms part of ongoing community liaison work.

Work package 2 Biophysical data collection and analysis

During the field work period, discussion took place with Dr Skarpe to ensure that her work and that of her students on browsing complements the activities of the rest of the group. To this effect, the same transects are being used.

Data collection will take place along a north-south transect, already in use by the Ministry of Agriculture (by Mr Tacheba, who participates in the project) and an east-west transect. For the latter transect, Dr Skarpe from NINA can provide historical data.

Task a. Basic survey of water sources and hydrological features

It is clear that water is a key resource, which needs to be fully covered. Water samples were collected from various hand-dug wells in pans in the Matsheng area. The samples have been collected at Tshane, Lokgwabe, Lehututu and Pepane pans. This water is being analysed for parameters such as TDS, coliform availability, etc. A repeat collection of the water samples will be done during the rainy season to determine seasonal fluctuations.

Task b. Survey of soil fertility and erodibility

Soil samples were taken for further analysis at the University of Botswana.

Task c. Ecological analysis

Ecological and soil studies were carried out along two transects. Both transects are 40 km long and start from pans because these are centres of livestock activities. Soil and ecological samples were taken at three distances along the transect. The first sampling was at 4 km (the zone used for heavy grazing and browsing by goats). The second site was at 18 km, where livestock grazing is the predominant form of land use. The third site was at 40 km, where wildlife is more common (wildlife management area). Sample sites were permanently with standards. Ecological data collection covered: determination of basal cover (by grass and herbs); canopy cover by woody species; determination of species composition; density and quality of species that can be grazed; amount of standing crop.

Data analysis is still on-going. Follow-up ecological field work is planned for the rainy season (December).

For more information on this task see Christina Skarpe’s report (this volume).

Task d. Estimates of biomass productivity.

For more information on this task see Christina Skarpe’s report (this volume).

Work package 3 Socio-economic data collection and analysis It was decided to work according to the following plan:

1. a general resource use survey
2. a detailed budget and resource allocation study
3. key interviews with knowledgeable local persons and extension workers
4. participatory rural appraisal workshop.

Two settlements were selected for detailed socio-economic studies and rangeland use at Tshane and Ngwatle. The resource use patterns and issues are expected to be markedly different in each. Tshane is a typical Matsheng village, where agriculture has become the primary source of living and rangeland use. It was chosen because the village is not dominated by government services (as Hukuntsi), and it ensures good integration with the physical science component as the village lies at the northern tip of the north-south transect and the village has a weather station with a good historical record. Ngwatle on the other hand is a small settlement for Basarwa in a wildlife management area.

The Participatory Rural Appraisal was initially planned for August but it was decided during the field work that the activity should be postponed pending the main survey results. This would give a focus to the workshops and, in addition, views of people expressed during the workshop could be compared with the survey results. The PRA workshops in Tshane and Ngwatle are now planned for mid-October.

Task a. Characterize the social structure of the communities

After a pre-test of the questionnaire (copy attached), the survey covered 50% of the households of Tshane (systematic sampling; sample size 93?). Four students acted as research assistants and gained valuable research exposure. The survey covered the following activities: demographic and socio-economic structure of the household, livestock, crops, wildlife and gathering. Minor problems were encountered with absentee household heads, etc but these could all be resolved (e.g., by several re-visits or ultimate replacement of the household and minor adjustments to the questionnaire). The survey yielded quantitative (or coded) and qualitative data. The coded/quantitative data have been entered in the computer using SPSS; the qualitative data have been summarised in large sheets. Some qualitative data can be coded and will be added to the computer database.

Task b-f

A budget and resource allocation (BRA) survey was conducted aimed specifically at gaining a better understanding of the importance of the various sources of livelihood and the allocation of scarce household resource to the respective rangeland uses (livestock, crops, wildlife and gathering). A conceptual model was prepared to aid the design of a comprehensive questionnaire, which was pre-tested together with the general survey. Given the sensitivity of financial issues, it was decided that for many questions ranking of importance would be sufficient. To ensure optimal benefits of both surveys, the BRA survey was conducted among a 50% sub-sample of the general survey. Initial fears of burdening households with two questionnaires in a short period proved wrong. After an explanation of the reasons for the second survey was given, respondents were very co-operative and interested.

Work package 4 Resource management and policy analysis

Task a/b. Determine the influence of different land use practices on rangeland resources and determine the influence of policy and institutions on rangeland resources

Using a checklist, key informants were interviewed to obtain in-depth qualitative information on rangeland management and changes therein. Interviewees included traditional authorities (e.g., headmen), extension workers (agriculture, wildlife, etc), elderly farmers with insights into the dynamics of rangelands.

Task c. Determine the impact of government intervention

In Gaborone, a general evaluation has been made of government policies on the livestock sector, on wildlife and on hunting and gathering. In addition, a start has been made with the evaluation of policies at the district level. A questionnaire was prepared and administered to district officials to gauge their perception of government policies. Some officials preferred to consult their files, etc and to complete the questionnaire themselves. The response rate of this group is still low and requires a follow up.

Work package 5 Integration and synthesis

This aspect of the project will be explored in more detail during the final year of the project.

Work package 6 Project coordination and reporting

An e-mail link has been established between the Botswana partners and the Centre for Arid Zone Studies in Bangor, Wales.

Regular monthly meetings were held throughout the project period to foster a good team effort and to ensure an integrated approach. Dr Setshogo, a botanist from the Department of Biological Sciences, was added to the team to strengthen the ecological expertise, in particular related to veld products.

A special relationship between the Botswana team and Dr Christina Skarpe of NINA has been forged.

3. Events

The University of Botswana hosted the first working meeting of all institutions. The meeting was successful both in getting to know each other and in synchronising the activities in each country of study. CAZS compiled and edited the proceedings of the workshop.

Project staff have attended a number of conferences and workshops:

1. A paper on the research project was presented at the Barcelona workshop. Participation was sponsored by START. The conference was very useful to inform the global change community about the project and to make contacts. It also offered an opportunity to discuss project details with IPE (Dr Juan Pablo Martinez Rica).

2. Three papers were presented at the IGBP/START workshop on the Kalahari Transect (June, Gaborone). The workshop was very useful to acquaint other researchers with the project and to share the main findings of the literature review. This project’s activities in Botswana (and possibly South Africa) are expected to form a key component in the Kalahari Transect project.

3. University of Fort Hare conference on Rangelands (June 98). The Botswana and South African teams gave a joint presentation of introduction to the project. The workshop was useful to inform other researchers about the project, to exchange ideas and to strengthen the links between the South African and Botswana teams.

4. Dr Totolo and Mrs Magole attended the International Geosphere Biosphere Programme 5th Scientific Advisory Council and National Advisory Committee (SAC-V) in Nairobi, 1-7 September, 1998, and presented an oral poster.

4. Personnel Deployed

The research team has been expanded with Dr Setshogo and now comprises the following persons: Dr Chanda, Dr Fidzani, Mrs Magole, Dr Setshogo, Mr Tacheba, Dr Totolo and Dr Arntzen (Team Leader). Mr Tacheba works for the Ministry of Agriculture; the other team-members work at the University of Botswana.

The University has advertised for a temporary, full-time researcher for this project. We hope to have the person in place in October.

5. Training

Mrs Kgabung, an MSc student from the Department of Environmental Science, has been working on her dissertation during the reporting period. Her topic is ‘The Impact of Livestock Expansion on Wildlife and Gathering Resources’. Her eight weeks of field work included a survey in a selection of settlements with husbandry activities ranging from mostly cattle to mostly wildlife) and ecological work (transects with sites at various distances from pans). A clear trade off between livestock on the one hand and wildlife/gathering on the other hand becomes apparent. She has conducted ecological work and a socio-economic survey at three settlements, including Ngwatle. The dissertation will be submitted for examination in October.

In the period May to August, eight students were employed as research assistants. They helped to get the job done but they also gained valuable experience in conducting fieldwork and data entering.

6. Visits and Exchanges

Prof Wyn Jones and Dr Robinson of CAZS and Dr Skarpe of NINA visited the team. With the assistance of Dr Robinson, a farm monitoring system can be set up among a small group of farmers. Given the conditions in the study area, such a system will also include wildlife and hunting activities. A follow-up visit by Dr Robinson is scheduled for the next project year. Dr Skarpe’s visits proved very useful to focus ecological fieldwork, to divide the work and to ensure co-ordination.

Dr Gerald Szejwach, the Executive Director of IGBP-DIS/CNRM, also visited the team. He was a contact made by Dr Totolo at the START workshop. Dr Szejwach has offered to investigate whether satellite imagery needs can be met through his institution at Toulouse. His visit was very productive and we hope that support is forthcoming.

Jaap Arntzen

  A Summary of the work accomplished during year 1 according to the plan contained in the Technical Annex.

Detailed information regarding each work package is contained in the individual reports of the partners.

Work package 1. Project initiation and community participation

Work package 2. Biophysical data collection and analysis

Work package 3. Socio-economic data collection and analysis
Socio-economic work has been initiated in all three sites taking the tasks listed below into consideration:

Work package 4. Resource management and policy analysis
This aspect of the work will become more prominent in the later stages of the project. However Dr Coleen Vogel from the University of Witwatersrand has commenced her work on the collection and analysis of historic data relating to management issues.

Work package 5. Integration and synthesis
The project has been designed around the static models (Figs. 1 & 2) derived at the Gaborone Workshop in 1996 which attempt to integrate biophysical and socio-economic factors. All the activities are based on an awareness of that model and the interaction between the components. The data thus collected in previous work packages will be used to generate a dynamic model providing a quantitative dimension hitherto missing. This should contribute greatly to the identification of important drivers in subsistence rangeland economies and ecologies.

Work package 6. Project co-ordination and reporting

Milestones predicted	Status
Sites identified	Done
Participating communities fully consulted and RA completed	Initial stages completed, PRA ongoing
Socio-economic interviews initiated	Done
Desk analysis of regional management and policy issues initiated	Done
Primary mapping of biophysical resources accomplished	Biophysical work progressing at all sites

Deliverables

1. The proceedings of Workshops - Part I (Sept/Oct 1997) produced
2. Half-yearly report and Report of Livestock Specialist produced
3. Task 0 reports produced, outlining the existing knowledge of the three sites
4. A WorldWide Web site created where documents are available
5. Three international conferences attended (Barcelona, Fort Hare and Nairobi) and presentations made at each
6. A number of publications have been submitted or published since the project was initiated, including peer-reviewed articles, theses, conference proceedings, popular articles and unpublished reports.